Metrology and Instrumentation

Samir Mekid, PhD, is Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Founding Director of the Interdisciplinary Research Center for Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia. He has worked as a design engineer with Caterpillar and is a Chartered Engineer registered with IMechE.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xvAbout the Author xvii1 Fundamental Units and Constants in Metrology 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Current Definitions of the Main SI Units 61.3 New Definition of Seven Base Units of the SI 61.4 Derived International System (SI) Units 71.5 SI Conversion 71.6 Fundamental Constants 81.7 Common Measurements 91.8 Principles and Practices of Traceability 101.8.1 Definition of Traceability 101.8.2 Accreditation and Conformity Assessment 11Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 12References 122 Scales of Metrology 132.1 Introduction to Practical Metrology across All Scales 132.2 Nanometrology 142.2.1 Introduction and Need in Industry 142.2.2 Definition of Nanometrology 152.2.3 Importance of Nanometrology in Science and Technology 152.3 Standards 182.4 Micrometrology 222.4.1 Introduction and Need in Industry 222.4.2 Definition of Micrometrology 222.4.3 Examples of Micrometrology of Microparts 222.5 Macroscale Metrology 232.5.1 Standards 252.6 Large-Scale Metrology and Large-Volume Metrology 292.6.1 Introduction and Need in Industry 292.6.2 Definition 302.6.3 Verification Standards 322.7 Instruments Techniques 342.7.1 Large Coordinate Measuring Machines 352.7.2 Laser Trackers 352.7.3 Theodolite 35Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 37References 373 Applied Math and Statistics 393.1 Introduction 393.2 Scientific and Engineering Notation 393.3 Imperial/Metric Conversions 403.4 Ratio 413.5 Linear Interpolation 423.6 Number Bases 423.7 Significant Figures, Rounding, and Truncation 433.8 Geometry and Volumes 443.8.1 Perimeter 443.8.2 Volume and Area 443.9 Angular Conversions 443.10 Graphs and Plots 453.11 Statistical Analysis and Common Distributions 473.11.1 Definition of Measurement Data 473.11.2 Statistical Measurements 473.11.3 Statistical Analysis of Measurements 473.11.4 Probability 483.11.5 Sample and Population 493.11.6 Formulation of Mean and Variance for Direct Measurements 493.11.7 Mean and Variance Based on Samples 503.11.8 The Standard Deviation of the Mean 513.12 Formulation of the Standard Uncertainty and Average of Indirect Measurements 523.12.1 How to Determine the Measured Value and Random Error? 523.12.2 Repeated Measurements of One Single Quantity 523.12.3 Normal Distribution 533.12.4 Student’s t-distribution 55Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 604 Errors and their Sources 61Introduction 614.1 Definition of the Error and Their Types 614.1.1 Systematic Errors 624.1.2 Random Errors 634.1.3 Components of Motion Error Assessment 634.2 Measurement Characteristics 634.2.1 Characterization of the Measurement 634.2.2 Resolution, Error Uncertainty, and Repeatability 644.2.3 Model of Measurement 674.3 Propagation of Errors 694.4 Sources of Errors 734.4.1 Static Errors and Dynamic Errors 734.5 Error Budget 774.5.1 Components of the Error Budget 774.5.2 Example of Error-Budget Table 784.6 Error Elimination Techniques 794.6.1 Methods 794.7 Model of Errors in CNC Using HTM 814.8 Case Study of Errors Budget 874.8.1 Description of the Designed System 874.8.2 Error Modeling and Experimental Testing 884.9 Solved Problems 96Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 97References 975 Measurement and Measurement Systems 995.1 Introduction 995.2 What Can Be Standard in a Measurement? 1015.3 Definitions of Key Measurement Components 1025.3.1 Measurement System 1025.3.2 Measurement System Analysis 1035.3.3 Measurement Process 1035.4 Physical Measurement Process (PMP) 1035.5 Difference between Number and an Analysis Model 1045.6 Measurement Methods 1055.6.1 Metrology and Measurement 1055.6.2 Metrological Characteristics of Measuring Instruments 1085.7 Instrumentation for Measurement 1095.7.1 Background 1095.7.2 Measurement Instrumentations 1095.7.3 Digital Measuring Device Fundamentals 1095.8 Non-Portable Dimensional Measuring Devices 1105.8.1 Laser Interferometry, Application to CNC Machines 1105.8.2 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) 1185.9 Metrology Laboratory Test for Students 140Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 146References 1466 Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis 1496.1 Introduction 1496.1.1 Importance of Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis 1496.1.2 Need for Tolerance Stack-Up Analysis in Assemblies 1516.1.3 Manufacturing Considerations in Engineering Design 1516.1.4 Technical Drawing 1526.1.5 Definitions, Format, andWorkflow of Tolerance Stack-Up 1536.2 Brief Introduction to Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) 1566.2.1 Notation and Problem Formulation 1566.2.2 Dimension Types 1576.2.3 Coordinate Dimensioning 1586.2.4 Tolerance Types 1606.2.5 Characteristics of Features and Their Tolerances 1626.3 Tolerance Format and Decimal Places 1646.4 Converting Plus/Minus Dimensions and Tolerances into Equal-Bilaterally Toleranced Dimensions 1656.5 Tolerance Stack Analysis 1676.5.1 Worst-Case Tolerance Analysis 1696.5.2 Rules for Assembly Shift 1696.5.3 Worst-Case Tolerance Stack-Up in Symmetric Dimensional Tolerance 1716.5.4 Worst-Case Tolerance Stack-Up in Asymmetric Dimensional Tolerance 1736.6 Statistical Tolerance Analysis 1736.6.1 Definition of Statistical Tolerance Analysis 1736.6.2 Worst-Case Analysis vs RSS (Root-Sum Squared) Statistical Analysis 1756.6.3 Second-Order Tolerance Analysis 1766.6.4 Cases Discussions 1766.6.5 Understanding Material Condition Modifiers 178Appendix A from ISO and ASME Y14 Symbols 188Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 189References 1897 Instrument Calibration Methods 1917.1 Introduction 1917.2 Definition of Calibration 1917.3 Need for Calibration 1927.4 Characteristics of Calibration 1937.5 Calibration Overall Requirements and Procedures 1957.5.1 Calibration Methods/Procedures 1957.6 Calibration Laboratory Requirements 1977.7 Industry Practices and Regulations 1987.8 Calibration and Limitations of a Digital System 1997.9 Verification and Calibration of CNC Machine Tool 2017.10 Inspection of the Positioning Accuracy of CNC Machine Tools 2027.11 CNC Machine Error Assessment and Calibration 2077.12 Assessment of the Contouring in the CNC Machine Using a Kinematic Ballbar System 2197.13 Calibration of 3-axis CNC Machine Tool 2217.14 Calibration of a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) 2257.14.1 CMM Performance Verification 2257.14.2 Accreditation of Calibration Laboratories 226Section 1: Scope and Description 231Section 2: Calibration Requirements 232Section 3: Preliminary Operations 232Section 4: Calibration Process 233Section 5: Data Analysis 234Section 6: Calibration Report 234Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 235References 2358 Uncertainty in Measurements 2378.1 Introduction and Background 2378.2 Uncertainty of Measurement 2388.3 Measurement Error 2388.4 Why Is Uncertainty of Measurement Important? 2398.5 Components and Sources of Uncertainty 2398.5.1 What Causes Uncertainty? 2398.5.2 Uncertainty Budget Components 2408.5.3 The Errors Affecting Accuracy 2408.6 Static Errors and Dynamic Errors 2418.7 Types of Uncertainty 2418.8 Uncertainty Evaluations and Analysis 2428.9 Uncertainty Reporting 2438.10 How to Report Uncertainty 2458.11 Fractional Uncertainty Revisited 2478.12 Propagation of Uncertainty 247Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 252References 2529 Dimensional Measurements and Calibration 2559.1 Length Measurement 2559.2 Displacement Measurement 2559.3 Manual Instruments 2609.3.1 Caliper 2609.3.2 Vernier Caliper 2619.3.3 Micrometer 2629.3.4 Feeler Gauge 2629.3.5 Liner Measurement Tool 2639.3.6 American Wire Gauge 2639.3.7 Bore Gauge 2639.3.8 Telescopic Feeler Gauge 2649.3.9 Depth Gauge 2659.3.10 Angle Plate or Tool 2659.3.11 Flat Plate 2669.3.12 Dial Gauge 2669.3.13 Oil Gauging Tapes 2679.3.14 Thread Measurement 2679.3.15 Planimeter 2679.4 Diameter and Roundness 2699.4.1 How to Measure a Diameter? 2699.4.2 Roundness 2709.5 Angular Measurements 2769.5.1 Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices 2779.5.2 Face Standard Angular Measuring Devices 2779.5.3 Measurement of Inclines 2799.5.4 Optical Instruments for Angular Measurement 2809.6 Metrology for Complex Geometric Features 2829.6.1 Edge Detection Techniques Using a CCD Camera 2829.6.2 Full Laser Scanning for Reverse Engineering 2839.7 Measurement Surface Texture 2859.7.1 Geometry of Surface 2859.7.2 Surface Integrity 2869.7.3 Specification of Surfaces 2869.7.4 Sampling Length 2879.7.5 Instruments and Measurement of Roughness 290Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 291References 29110 Mechanical Measurements and Calibration 29310.1 Importance of Mechanical Measurements 29310.2 Mechanical Measurements and Calibration 29310.3 Description of Mechanical Instruments 29410.3.1 Mass Measurements 29410.3.2 Force Measurements 29510.3.3 Vibration Measurements 29510.3.4 Volume and Density 29610.3.5 Hydrometers 29810.3.6 Acoustic Measurements 29810.4 Calibration of Mechanical Instruments 30010.4.1 When Is Equipment Calibration Needed? 30010.4.2 When Is There No Need for Calibration? 30110.4.3 Process of Equipment Calibration 30110.5 Equipment Validation for Measurement 30110.5.1 Is There a Need of Equipment Validation? 30210.5.2 Features and Benefits of Validation 30210.5.3 Process of Validation of Equipment 30210.6 Difference between Calibration and Validation of Equipment 30310.7 Difference between Calibration and Verification 30310.8 Calibration of Each Instrument 30410.8.1 Mass Calibration 30410.8.2 Force Calibration 30410.8.3 Pressure Calibration 30410.8.4 Vibration Measurements 30610.8.5 Volume and Density 30710.8.6 Hydrometers 30810.8.7 Acoustic Measurements 308Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 308References 30811 Thermodynamic Measurements 30911.1 Background 30911.2 Scale of Temperature 30911.2.1 Ideal Gas Law 31011.2.2 Vacuum 31011.2.3 Gas Constants 31011.3 Power 31211.4 Enthalpy 31211.5 Humidity Measurements 31211.6 Methods of Measuring Temperature 31311.7 Temperature Measured through Thermal Expansion Materials 31411.7.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer 31411.7.2 Bimetallic Thermometer 31411.7.3 Electrical Resistance Thermometry 31511.7.4 Resistance Temperature Detectors 31611.7.5 Examples for Discussion 31811.7.6 Thermistors 32011.8 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement or Thermocouples 32111.8.1 Basic Thermocouples 32111.8.2 Fundamental Thermocouple Laws 32211.9 Thermocouple Materials 32311.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouple Materials 32411.9.2 Thermocouple Voltage Measurement 32511.10 Multi-Junction Thermocouple Circuits 32611.11 Thermopiles 32711.12 Radiative Temperature Measurement 327Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 329References 32912 Quality Systems and Standards 33112.1 Introduction to Quality Management 33112.2 Quality Management 33212.2.1 Total Quality Management (TQM) 33212.2.2 Quality Management System (QMS) 33312.2.3 TQM Is Essential to Complete TQS 33312.2.4 ISO-Based QMS Certification 33312.3 Components of Quality Management 33412.3.1 Quality System (QS) 33412.3.2 Quality Assurance (QA) 33512.3.3 Quality Control (QC) 33512.3.4 Quality Assessment 33512.4 System Components 33612.4.1 Quality Audits 33612.4.2 Preventive and Corrective Action 33612.4.3 Occupational Safety Requirements 33712.4.4 Housekeeping Practices 33812.5 Quality Standards and Guides 338Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 339References 34013 Digital Metrology Setups and Industry Revolution I4.0 34113.1 Introduction 34113.1.1 What Is a Digital Measurement? 34113.1.2 Metrology and Digitalization 34113.1.3 Implementation Strategy 34313.2 Data Acquisition 34313.3 Setup Fundamentals for Measurement and Data Acquisition 34413.3.1 Length Measurement in Open Loop 34413.3.2 Thermal Measurement and Data-Acquisition Considerations 34513.3.3 Data Transfer to Cloud 34913.3.4 Internet of Things (IoT) Metrology 34913.3.5 Closed-Loop Data Analysis- (In-Process Inspection) 35013.4 Digital Twin Metrology Inspection 352Multiple Choice Questions of this Chapter 354References 354Index 357