Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning. Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters. Mashallah Rezakazemi, PhD, received his doctorate from the University of Tehran (UT) in 2015. In his first appointment, he served as associate professor in the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Shahrood University of Technology. He has co-authored in more than 140 highly cited journal publications, conference articles and book chapters. He has received numerous major awards and grants from various funding agencies in recognition of his research. Notable among these are Khwarizmi Youth Award from the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), and the Outstanding Young Researcher Award in Chemical Engineering from the Academy of Sciences of Iran. He was named a top 1% most Highly Cited Researcher by Web of Science (ESI).

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• Preface xv1 Organic Solar Cells 1Yadavalli Venkata Durga Nageswar and Vaidya Jayathirtha Rao1.1 Introduction 11.2 Classification of Solar Cells 31.3 Solar Cell Structure 41.4 Photovoltaic Parameters or Terminology Used in BHJOSCs 51.4.1 Open-Circuit Voltage Voc 51.4.2 Short-Circuit Current Jsc 51.4.3 Incident-Photon-to-Current Efficiency (IPCE) 51.4.4 Power Conversion Efficiency ηp (PCE) 61.4.5 Fill Factor (FF) 61.5 Some Basic Design Principles/Thumb Rules Associated With Organic Materials Required for BHJOSCs 61.6 Recent Research Advances in Small-Molecule Acceptor and Polymer Donor Types 71.7 Recent Research Advances in All Small-Molecule Acceptor and Donor Types 301.8 Conclusion 47Acknowledgement 48References 482 Plasmonic Solar Cells 55T. Shiyani, S. K. Mahapatra and I. Banerjee2.1 Introduction 562.1.1 Plasmonic Nanostructure 582.1.2 Classification of Plasmonic Nanostructures 592.2 Principles and Working Mechanism of Plasmonic Solar Cells 602.2.1 Working Principle 602.2.2 Mechanism of Plasmonic Solar Cells 612.3 Important Optical Properties 622.3.1 Trapping of Light 632.3.2 Scattering and Absorption of Sunlight 632.3.3 Multiple Energy Levels 632.4 Advancements in Plasmonic Solar Cells 642.4.1 Direct Plasmonic Solar Cells 652.4.2 Plasmonic-Enhanced Solar Cell 692.4.3 Plasmonic Thin Film Solar Cells 692.4.4 Plasmonic Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (PDSSCs) 702.4.5 Plasmonic Photoelectrochemical Cells 712.4.6 Plasmonic Quantum Dot (QD) Solar Cells 712.4.7 Plasmonic Perovskite Solar Cells 722.4.8 Plasmonic Hybrid Solar Cells 722.5 Conclusion and Future Aspects 72Acknowledgements 73References 733 Tandem Solar Cell 83Umesh FegadeList of Abbreviations 833.1 Introduction 853.2 Review of Organic Tandem Solar Cell 863.3 Review of Inorganic Tandem Solar Cell 893.4 Conclusion 95References 964 Thin-Film Solar Cells 103Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Raja Gunasekaran, Santhosh Sivaraj, Saravanakumar Jaganathan and Rajasekar Rathanasamy4.1 Introduction 1044.2 Why Thin-Film Solar Cells? 1054.3 Amorphous Silicon 1054.4 Cadmium Telluride 1084.5 Copper Indium Diselenide Solar Cells 1114.6 Comparison Between Flexible a-Si:H, CdTe, and CIGS Cells and Applications 1124.7 Conclusion 113References 114Contents vii5 Biohybrid Solar Cells 117Sapana Jadoun and Ufana RiazAbbreviations 1175.1 Introduction 1185.2 Photovoltaics 1195.3 Solar Cells 1195.3.1 First-Generation 1205.3.2 Second-Generation 1205.3.3 Third-Generation 1205.3.4 Fourth-Generation 1215.4 Biohybrid Solar Cells 1215.5 Role of Photosynthesis 1225.6 Plant-Based Biohybrid Devices 1225.6.1 PS I–Based Biohybrid Devices 1235.6.2 PS II–Based Biohybrid Devices 1255.7 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 1265.8 Polymer and Semiconductors-Based Biohybrid Solar Cells 1265.9 Conclusion 129References 1296 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 137Santhosh Sivaraj, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Mohankumar Anandraj, Moganapriya Chinnasamy and Rajasekar Rathanasamy6.1 Introduction 1386.2 Cell Architecture and Working Mechanism 1396.3 Fabrication of Simple DSSC in Lab Scale 1426.4 Electrodes 1446.5 Counter Electrode 1456.6 Blocking Layer 1466.7 Electrolytes Used 1476.7.1 Liquid-Based Electrolytes 1486.7.1.1 Electrical Additives 1486.7.1.2 Organic Solvents 1486.7.1.3 Ionic Liquids 1496.7.1.4 Iodide/Triiodide-Free Mediator and Redox Couples 1496.7.2 Quasi-Solid-State Electrolytes 1496.7.2.1 Thermoplastic-Based Polymer Electrolytes 1506.7.2.2 Thermosetting Polymer Electrolytes 1506.7.3 Solid-State Transport Materials 1506.7.3.1 Inorganic Hole Transport Materials 1516.7.3.2 Organic Hole Transport Materials 1516.7.3.3 Solid-State Ionic Conductors 1516.8 Commonly Used Natural Dyes in DSSC 1526.8.1 Chlorophyll 1526.8.2 Flavonoids 1526.8.3 Anthocyanins 1536.8.4 Carotenoids 1546.9 Calculations 1546.9.1 Power Conversion Efficiency 1546.9.2 Fill Factor 1636.9.3 Open-Circuit Voltage 1636.9.4 Short Circuit Current 1636.9.5 Determination of Energy Gap of Electrode Material Adsorbed With Natural Dye 1636.9.6 Absorption Coefficient 1646.9.7 Dye Adsorption 1646.10 Conclusion 164References 1657 Characterization and Theoretical Modeling of Solar Cells 169Masoud Darvish Ganji, Mahyar Rezvani and Sepideh Tanreh  7.1 Introduction 1707.2 Classification of SC 1727.2.1 Inorganic Solar Cells 1737.2.2 Organic Solar Cell 1737.3 Working Principle of DSSC 1757.4 Operation Principle of DSSC 1767.5 Photovoltaic Parameters 1777.6 Theoretical and Computational Methods 1817.6.1 Density Functional Theory (DFT) 1827.6.2 Basis Sets 1837.6.3 TDDFT Method 1837.6.4 Molecular Descriptors 1847.6.5 Force Field Parameterization for MD Simulations 1887.6.6 Excited States 1897.6.7 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 1907.6.8 Charge Transfer and Carrier Transport 1927.6.9 Coarse-Grained (CG) Simulations 1937.6.10 Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) Modeling 1937.6.11 Car-Parrinello Method 1957.6.12 Solvent Effects 1967.6.13 Global Reactivity Descriptors 1967.7 Conclusion 198References 1998 Efficient Performance Parameters for Solar Cells 217Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua8.1 Introduction 2188.1.1 Potential, Production, and Climate of Ankara 2258.2 Solar Radiation Intensity Calculation 2258.2.1 Horizontal Superficies 2258.2.1.1 On a Daily Basis Total Sun Irradiation 2258.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Sun Irradiation 2278.2.1.3 Momentary Total Sun Irradiation 2278.2.1.4 Direct and Diffuse Sun Radiation 2288.2.2 On Inclined Superficies, Computing Sun Irradiation Intensity 2288.2.2.1 Direct Momentary Sun Radiation 2288.2.2.2 Diffuse Sun Radiation 2288.2.2.3 Momentary Reflecting Radiation 2298.2.2.4 Total Sun Radiation 2298.3 Methodology 2298.3.1 The Solar Radiation Assessments by Correlation Models With MATLAB Simulation Software 2298.3.2 MATLAB Simulation Results and Findings 2338.3.3 For Ankara Province, the Determinants of the Most Efficiency Solar Cell With AHP Methodology 2338.4 Conclusions 238References 2409 Practices to Enhance Conversion Efficiencies in Solar Cell 247Andreea Irina Barzic9.1 Introduction 2479.2 Basics on Conversion Efficiency 2499.3 Approaches for Improving Conversion Efficiencies in Solar Cells 2539.4 Conclusion 264Acknowledgements 264References 26510 Solar Cell Efficiency Energy Materials 271Zeeshan Abid, Faiza Wahad, Sughra Gulzar, Muhammad Faheem Ashiq, Muhammad Shahid Aslam, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf10.1 Introduction 27210.2 Solar Cell Efficiency 27410.3 Historical Development of Solar Cell Materials 27510.4 Solar Cell Materials and Efficiencies 27710.4.1 Crystalline Silicon 27810.4.2 Silicon Thin-Film Alloys 28210.4.3 III-V Semiconductors 28410.4.4 Chalcogenide 28710.4.4.1 Chalcopyrites 28710.4.4.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 28810.4.5 Organic Materials 28910.4.6 Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Materials 29310.4.6.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Materials 29310.4.6.2 Perovskites 29610.4.7 Quantum Dots 30010.5 Conclusion and Prospects 302References 30311 Analytical Tools for Solar Cell 317Mohamad Saufi Rosmi, Ong Suu Wan, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed, Zul Adlan Mohd Hir and Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar11.1 Introduction 31811.2 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 31911.2.1 Application of Transient Absorption Spectroscopy in Solar Cells 32011.3 Electron Tomography 32311.3.1 Application of Electron Tomography (ET) in Solar Cells 32411.4 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy (C-AFM) 32711.4.1 Application of C-AFM in Solar Cells 32911.5 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 33011.5.1 Application of Scanning Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy for Solar Cells 33411.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy 33511.6.1 Application of Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy in Solar Cell 33811.7 Conclusion 340References 34012 Applications of Solar Cells 345Mohd Imran Ahamed and Naushad Anwar12.1 Introduction 34512.2 An Overview on Photovoltaic Cell 34812.2.1 History 34812.2.2 Working Principle of Solar Cell 34812.2.3 First-Generation Photovoltaic Cells: Crystalline Silicon Form 35112.2.4 Second-Generation Photovoltaic Cells: Thin-Film Solar Cells 35212.2.5 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 35312.3 Applications of Solar Cells 35412.3.1 Perovskite Solar Cell 35412.3.2 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 35512.3.3 Nanostructured Inorganic-Organic Heterojunction Solar Cells (NSIOHSCs) 35612.3.4 Polymer Solar Cells 35712.3.5 Quantum Dot Solar Cell (QDCs) 35812.3.6 Organic Solar Cells 36012.4 Conclusion and Summary 362References 36213 Challenges of Stability in Perovskite Solar Cells 371Mutayyab Afreen, Jazib Ali and Muhammad Bilal13.1 Introduction 37113.2 Degradation Phenomena and Stability Measures in Perovskite 37313.2.1 Thermal Stability 37313.2.2 Structural and Chemical Stability 37513.2.3 Oxygen and Moisture 37613.2.4 Visible and UV Light Exposure 37813.3 Stability-Interface Interplay 37913.3.1 Chemical Reaction at the Interface 37913.3.2 Degradation on the Top Electrode 38013.3.3 Hysteresis Phenomenon in PSC Devices 38113.4 Effect of Selective Contacts on Stability 38213.4.1 Electron-Transport Layers 38213.4.2 Hole Transport Layers 38413.4 Conclusion 387References 38714 State-of-the-Art and Prospective of Solar Cells 393Zahra Pezeshki and Abdelhalim ZekryAcronyms 39314.1 Introduction 39614.2 State-of-the-Art of Solar Cells 39614.2.1 Production Volume 40014.2.2 Cost Breakdown 40014.2.3 Main Technologies 40114.2.3.1 Si Solar Cell Arrays 40114.2.3.2 DSSCs 40314.2.3.3 Photoanodes 40414.2.3.4 C/Si Heterojunctions 40414.2.3.5 a-C/Si Heterojunctions 41014.2.3.6 Non-Fullerene Acceptor Bulk Heterojunctions 41014.2.3.7 a-Si 41114.2.3.8 Perovskites 41114.2.3.9 Metal-Halide–Based Perovskites 41314.2.3.10 Sn-Based Perovskites 41514.2.3.11 Heavily Doped Solar Cells 41614.2.3.12 PV Building Substrates 41614.2.3.13 Solar Tracking System 42214.2.3.14 Solar Concentrators 42514.2.3.15 Solar Power Satellite 42614.2.3.16 Roof-Top Solar PV System 42714.2.3.17 Short-Wavelength Solar-Blind Detectors 42814.2.3.18 GCPVS 42914.2.3.19 Microwave Heating in Si Solar Cell Fabrication 43114.2.3.20 Refrigeration PV System 43214.2.3.21 Solar Collectors and Receivers 43314.2.3.22 Solar Drying System 43514.2.3.23 Water Networks With Solar PV Energy 43614.2.3.24 Wind and Solar Integrated to Smart Grid 43714.2.3.25 Green Data Centers 44014.3 Prospective of Solar Cells 44314.4 Conclusion 445References 44715 Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells 461Faiza Wahad, Zeeshan Abid, Sughra Gulzar, Muhammad Shahid Aslam, Saqib Rafique, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf15.1 Introduction 46215.2 Device Architectures 46415.2.1 Conventional n-i-p Device Structure 46515.2.2 Inverted p-i-n Device Structure 46515.3 Optical Assessment 46615.3.1 Average Visible Transmittance 46615.3.2 Corresponding Color Temperature 46715.3.3 Color Rendering Index 46815.3.4 Transparency Color Perception 46815.3.5 Light Management 47115.4 Materials 47415.4.1 Photoactive Layer 47415.4.2 Charge Transport Layers (ETL and HTL) 47915.4.3 Transparent Electrode 48115.5 Applications 48415.5.1 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics 48415.5.2 Tandem Devices 48615.6 Conclusion 492References 49216 Flexible Solar Cells 505Santosh Patil, Rushi Jani, Nisarg Purabiarao, Archan Desai, Ishan Desai and Kshitij Bhargava16.1 Introduction 50516.1.1 Need for Solar Energy Harnessing 50516.1.2 Brief Overview of Generations of Solar Cells 50616.1.3 Limitations of Solar Cells 50816.1.4 What is Flexible Solar Cell (FSC)? 50916.2 Materials for FSCs 51016.2.1 Semiconductors 51016.2.2 Substrates 51216.2.3 Electrodes 51316.2.4 Encapsulations 51416.3 Thin-Film Deposition 51416.3.1 R2R Processing 51516.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition 51616.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 51716.3.4 Dip Coating 51816.3.5 Spin Coating 52016.3.6 Screen Printing 52116.4 Characterizations for FSCs 52216.4.1 Material Characterization 52316.4.2 Device Characterization 52916.5 Issues in FSCs 53116.6 Performance Comparison of RSCs and FSCs 53216.7 Applications of Flexible Solar Cell 53216.8 Conclusion 533References 534Index 537

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning. Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters. Mashallah Rezakazemi, PhD, received his doctorate from the University of Tehran (UT) in 2015. In his first appointment, he served as associate professor in the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Shahrood University of Technology. He has co-authored in more than 140 highly cited journal publications, conference articles and book chapters. He has received numerous major awards and grants from various funding agencies in recognition of his research. Notable among these are Khwarizmi Youth Award from the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), and the Outstanding Young Researcher Award in Chemical Engineering from the Academy of Sciences of Iran. He was named a top 1% most Highly Cited Researcher by Web of Science (ESI).

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• Preface xv1 Organic Solar Cells 1Yadavalli Venkata Durga Nageswar and Vaidya Jayathirtha Rao1.1 Introduction 11.2 Classification of Solar Cells 31.3 Solar Cell Structure 41.4 Photovoltaic Parameters or Terminology Used in BHJOSCs 51.4.1 Open-Circuit Voltage Voc 51.4.2 Short-Circuit Current Jsc 51.4.3 Incident-Photon-to-Current Efficiency (IPCE) 51.4.4 Power Conversion Efficiency ηp (PCE) 61.4.5 Fill Factor (FF) 61.5 Some Basic Design Principles/Thumb Rules Associated With Organic Materials Required for BHJOSCs 61.6 Recent Research Advances in Small-Molecule Acceptor and Polymer Donor Types 71.7 Recent Research Advances in All Small-Molecule Acceptor and Donor Types 301.8 Conclusion 47Acknowledgement 48References 482 Plasmonic Solar Cells 55T. Shiyani, S. K. Mahapatra and I. Banerjee2.1 Introduction 562.1.1 Plasmonic Nanostructure 582.1.2 Classification of Plasmonic Nanostructures 592.2 Principles and Working Mechanism of Plasmonic Solar Cells 602.2.1 Working Principle 602.2.2 Mechanism of Plasmonic Solar Cells 612.3 Important Optical Properties 622.3.1 Trapping of Light 632.3.2 Scattering and Absorption of Sunlight 632.3.3 Multiple Energy Levels 632.4 Advancements in Plasmonic Solar Cells 642.4.1 Direct Plasmonic Solar Cells 652.4.2 Plasmonic-Enhanced Solar Cell 692.4.3 Plasmonic Thin Film Solar Cells 692.4.4 Plasmonic Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (PDSSCs) 702.4.5 Plasmonic Photoelectrochemical Cells 712.4.6 Plasmonic Quantum Dot (QD) Solar Cells 712.4.7 Plasmonic Perovskite Solar Cells 722.4.8 Plasmonic Hybrid Solar Cells 722.5 Conclusion and Future Aspects 72Acknowledgements 73References 733 Tandem Solar Cell 83Umesh FegadeList of Abbreviations 833.1 Introduction 853.2 Review of Organic Tandem Solar Cell 863.3 Review of Inorganic Tandem Solar Cell 893.4 Conclusion 95References 964 Thin-Film Solar Cells 103Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Raja Gunasekaran, Santhosh Sivaraj, Saravanakumar Jaganathan and Rajasekar Rathanasamy4.1 Introduction 1044.2 Why Thin-Film Solar Cells? 1054.3 Amorphous Silicon 1054.4 Cadmium Telluride 1084.5 Copper Indium Diselenide Solar Cells 1114.6 Comparison Between Flexible a-Si:H, CdTe, and CIGS Cells and Applications 1124.7 Conclusion 113References 114Contents vii5 Biohybrid Solar Cells 117Sapana Jadoun and Ufana RiazAbbreviations 1175.1 Introduction 1185.2 Photovoltaics 1195.3 Solar Cells 1195.3.1 First-Generation 1205.3.2 Second-Generation 1205.3.3 Third-Generation 1205.3.4 Fourth-Generation 1215.4 Biohybrid Solar Cells 1215.5 Role of Photosynthesis 1225.6 Plant-Based Biohybrid Devices 1225.6.1 PS I–Based Biohybrid Devices 1235.6.2 PS II–Based Biohybrid Devices 1255.7 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 1265.8 Polymer and Semiconductors-Based Biohybrid Solar Cells 1265.9 Conclusion 129References 1296 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 137Santhosh Sivaraj, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Mohankumar Anandraj, Moganapriya Chinnasamy and Rajasekar Rathanasamy6.1 Introduction 1386.2 Cell Architecture and Working Mechanism 1396.3 Fabrication of Simple DSSC in Lab Scale 1426.4 Electrodes 1446.5 Counter Electrode 1456.6 Blocking Layer 1466.7 Electrolytes Used 1476.7.1 Liquid-Based Electrolytes 1486.7.1.1 Electrical Additives 1486.7.1.2 Organic Solvents 1486.7.1.3 Ionic Liquids 1496.7.1.4 Iodide/Triiodide-Free Mediator and Redox Couples 1496.7.2 Quasi-Solid-State Electrolytes 1496.7.2.1 Thermoplastic-Based Polymer Electrolytes 1506.7.2.2 Thermosetting Polymer Electrolytes 1506.7.3 Solid-State Transport Materials 1506.7.3.1 Inorganic Hole Transport Materials 1516.7.3.2 Organic Hole Transport Materials 1516.7.3.3 Solid-State Ionic Conductors 1516.8 Commonly Used Natural Dyes in DSSC 1526.8.1 Chlorophyll 1526.8.2 Flavonoids 1526.8.3 Anthocyanins 1536.8.4 Carotenoids 1546.9 Calculations 1546.9.1 Power Conversion Efficiency 1546.9.2 Fill Factor 1636.9.3 Open-Circuit Voltage 1636.9.4 Short Circuit Current 1636.9.5 Determination of Energy Gap of Electrode Material Adsorbed With Natural Dye 1636.9.6 Absorption Coefficient 1646.9.7 Dye Adsorption 1646.10 Conclusion 164References 1657 Characterization and Theoretical Modeling of Solar Cells 169Masoud Darvish Ganji, Mahyar Rezvani and Sepideh Tanreh  7.1 Introduction 1707.2 Classification of SC 1727.2.1 Inorganic Solar Cells 1737.2.2 Organic Solar Cell 1737.3 Working Principle of DSSC 1757.4 Operation Principle of DSSC 1767.5 Photovoltaic Parameters 1777.6 Theoretical and Computational Methods 1817.6.1 Density Functional Theory (DFT) 1827.6.2 Basis Sets 1837.6.3 TDDFT Method 1837.6.4 Molecular Descriptors 1847.6.5 Force Field Parameterization for MD Simulations 1887.6.6 Excited States 1897.6.7 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 1907.6.8 Charge Transfer and Carrier Transport 1927.6.9 Coarse-Grained (CG) Simulations 1937.6.10 Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) Modeling 1937.6.11 Car-Parrinello Method 1957.6.12 Solvent Effects 1967.6.13 Global Reactivity Descriptors 1967.7 Conclusion 198References 1998 Efficient Performance Parameters for Solar Cells 217Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua8.1 Introduction 2188.1.1 Potential, Production, and Climate of Ankara 2258.2 Solar Radiation Intensity Calculation 2258.2.1 Horizontal Superficies 2258.2.1.1 On a Daily Basis Total Sun Irradiation 2258.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Sun Irradiation 2278.2.1.3 Momentary Total Sun Irradiation 2278.2.1.4 Direct and Diffuse Sun Radiation 2288.2.2 On Inclined Superficies, Computing Sun Irradiation Intensity 2288.2.2.1 Direct Momentary Sun Radiation 2288.2.2.2 Diffuse Sun Radiation 2288.2.2.3 Momentary Reflecting Radiation 2298.2.2.4 Total Sun Radiation 2298.3 Methodology 2298.3.1 The Solar Radiation Assessments by Correlation Models With MATLAB Simulation Software 2298.3.2 MATLAB Simulation Results and Findings 2338.3.3 For Ankara Province, the Determinants of the Most Efficiency Solar Cell With AHP Methodology 2338.4 Conclusions 238References 2409 Practices to Enhance Conversion Efficiencies in Solar Cell 247Andreea Irina Barzic9.1 Introduction 2479.2 Basics on Conversion Efficiency 2499.3 Approaches for Improving Conversion Efficiencies in Solar Cells 2539.4 Conclusion 264Acknowledgements 264References 26510 Solar Cell Efficiency Energy Materials 271Zeeshan Abid, Faiza Wahad, Sughra Gulzar, Muhammad Faheem Ashiq, Muhammad Shahid Aslam, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf10.1 Introduction 27210.2 Solar Cell Efficiency 27410.3 Historical Development of Solar Cell Materials 27510.4 Solar Cell Materials and Efficiencies 27710.4.1 Crystalline Silicon 27810.4.2 Silicon Thin-Film Alloys 28210.4.3 III-V Semiconductors 28410.4.4 Chalcogenide 28710.4.4.1 Chalcopyrites 28710.4.4.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 28810.4.5 Organic Materials 28910.4.6 Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Materials 29310.4.6.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Materials 29310.4.6.2 Perovskites 29610.4.7 Quantum Dots 30010.5 Conclusion and Prospects 302References 30311 Analytical Tools for Solar Cell 317Mohamad Saufi Rosmi, Ong Suu Wan, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed, Zul Adlan Mohd Hir and Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar11.1 Introduction 31811.2 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 31911.2.1 Application of Transient Absorption Spectroscopy in Solar Cells 32011.3 Electron Tomography 32311.3.1 Application of Electron Tomography (ET) in Solar Cells 32411.4 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy (C-AFM) 32711.4.1 Application of C-AFM in Solar Cells 32911.5 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 33011.5.1 Application of Scanning Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy for Solar Cells 33411.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy 33511.6.1 Application of Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy in Solar Cell 33811.7 Conclusion 340References 34012 Applications of Solar Cells 345Mohd Imran Ahamed and Naushad Anwar12.1 Introduction 34512.2 An Overview on Photovoltaic Cell 34812.2.1 History 34812.2.2 Working Principle of Solar Cell 34812.2.3 First-Generation Photovoltaic Cells: Crystalline Silicon Form 35112.2.4 Second-Generation Photovoltaic Cells: Thin-Film Solar Cells 35212.2.5 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 35312.3 Applications of Solar Cells 35412.3.1 Perovskite Solar Cell 35412.3.2 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 35512.3.3 Nanostructured Inorganic-Organic Heterojunction Solar Cells (NSIOHSCs) 35612.3.4 Polymer Solar Cells 35712.3.5 Quantum Dot Solar Cell (QDCs) 35812.3.6 Organic Solar Cells 36012.4 Conclusion and Summary 362References 36213 Challenges of Stability in Perovskite Solar Cells 371Mutayyab Afreen, Jazib Ali and Muhammad Bilal13.1 Introduction 37113.2 Degradation Phenomena and Stability Measures in Perovskite 37313.2.1 Thermal Stability 37313.2.2 Structural and Chemical Stability 37513.2.3 Oxygen and Moisture 37613.2.4 Visible and UV Light Exposure 37813.3 Stability-Interface Interplay 37913.3.1 Chemical Reaction at the Interface 37913.3.2 Degradation on the Top Electrode 38013.3.3 Hysteresis Phenomenon in PSC Devices 38113.4 Effect of Selective Contacts on Stability 38213.4.1 Electron-Transport Layers 38213.4.2 Hole Transport Layers 38413.4 Conclusion 387References 38714 State-of-the-Art and Prospective of Solar Cells 393Zahra Pezeshki and Abdelhalim ZekryAcronyms 39314.1 Introduction 39614.2 State-of-the-Art of Solar Cells 39614.2.1 Production Volume 40014.2.2 Cost Breakdown 40014.2.3 Main Technologies 40114.2.3.1 Si Solar Cell Arrays 40114.2.3.2 DSSCs 40314.2.3.3 Photoanodes 40414.2.3.4 C/Si Heterojunctions 40414.2.3.5 a-C/Si Heterojunctions 41014.2.3.6 Non-Fullerene Acceptor Bulk Heterojunctions 41014.2.3.7 a-Si 41114.2.3.8 Perovskites 41114.2.3.9 Metal-Halide–Based Perovskites 41314.2.3.10 Sn-Based Perovskites 41514.2.3.11 Heavily Doped Solar Cells 41614.2.3.12 PV Building Substrates 41614.2.3.13 Solar Tracking System 42214.2.3.14 Solar Concentrators 42514.2.3.15 Solar Power Satellite 42614.2.3.16 Roof-Top Solar PV System 42714.2.3.17 Short-Wavelength Solar-Blind Detectors 42814.2.3.18 GCPVS 42914.2.3.19 Microwave Heating in Si Solar Cell Fabrication 43114.2.3.20 Refrigeration PV System 43214.2.3.21 Solar Collectors and Receivers 43314.2.3.22 Solar Drying System 43514.2.3.23 Water Networks With Solar PV Energy 43614.2.3.24 Wind and Solar Integrated to Smart Grid 43714.2.3.25 Green Data Centers 44014.3 Prospective of Solar Cells 44314.4 Conclusion 445References 44715 Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells 461Faiza Wahad, Zeeshan Abid, Sughra Gulzar, Muhammad Shahid Aslam, Saqib Rafique, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf15.1 Introduction 46215.2 Device Architectures 46415.2.1 Conventional n-i-p Device Structure 46515.2.2 Inverted p-i-n Device Structure 46515.3 Optical Assessment 46615.3.1 Average Visible Transmittance 46615.3.2 Corresponding Color Temperature 46715.3.3 Color Rendering Index 46815.3.4 Transparency Color Perception 46815.3.5 Light Management 47115.4 Materials 47415.4.1 Photoactive Layer 47415.4.2 Charge Transport Layers (ETL and HTL) 47915.4.3 Transparent Electrode 48115.5 Applications 48415.5.1 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics 48415.5.2 Tandem Devices 48615.6 Conclusion 492References 49216 Flexible Solar Cells 505Santosh Patil, Rushi Jani, Nisarg Purabiarao, Archan Desai, Ishan Desai and Kshitij Bhargava16.1 Introduction 50516.1.1 Need for Solar Energy Harnessing 50516.1.2 Brief Overview of Generations of Solar Cells 50616.1.3 Limitations of Solar Cells 50816.1.4 What is Flexible Solar Cell (FSC)? 50916.2 Materials for FSCs 51016.2.1 Semiconductors 51016.2.2 Substrates 51216.2.3 Electrodes 51316.2.4 Encapsulations 51416.3 Thin-Film Deposition 51416.3.1 R2R Processing 51516.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition 51616.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 51716.3.4 Dip Coating 51816.3.5 Spin Coating 52016.3.6 Screen Printing 52116.4 Characterizations for FSCs 52216.4.1 Material Characterization 52316.4.2 Device Characterization 52916.5 Issues in FSCs 53116.6 Performance Comparison of RSCs and FSCs 53216.7 Applications of Flexible Solar Cell 53216.8 Conclusion 533References 534Index 537

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning. Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters. Mashallah Rezakazemi, PhD, received his doctorate from the University of Tehran (UT) in 2015. In his first appointment, he served as associate professor in the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Shahrood University of Technology. He has co-authored in more than 140 highly cited journal publications, conference articles and book chapters. He has received numerous major awards and grants from various funding agencies in recognition of his research. Notable among these are Khwarizmi Youth Award from the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), and the Outstanding Young Researcher Award in Chemical Engineering from the Academy of Sciences of Iran. He was named a top 1% most Highly Cited Researcher by Web of Science (ESI).

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• Preface xv1 Organic Solar Cells 1Yadavalli Venkata Durga Nageswar and Vaidya Jayathirtha Rao1.1 Introduction 11.2 Classification of Solar Cells 31.3 Solar Cell Structure 41.4 Photovoltaic Parameters or Terminology Used in BHJOSCs 51.4.1 Open-Circuit Voltage Voc 51.4.2 Short-Circuit Current Jsc 51.4.3 Incident-Photon-to-Current Efficiency (IPCE) 51.4.4 Power Conversion Efficiency ηp (PCE) 61.4.5 Fill Factor (FF) 61.5 Some Basic Design Principles/Thumb Rules Associated With Organic Materials Required for BHJOSCs 61.6 Recent Research Advances in Small-Molecule Acceptor and Polymer Donor Types 71.7 Recent Research Advances in All Small-Molecule Acceptor and Donor Types 301.8 Conclusion 47Acknowledgement 48References 482 Plasmonic Solar Cells 55T. Shiyani, S. K. Mahapatra and I. Banerjee2.1 Introduction 562.1.1 Plasmonic Nanostructure 582.1.2 Classification of Plasmonic Nanostructures 592.2 Principles and Working Mechanism of Plasmonic Solar Cells 602.2.1 Working Principle 602.2.2 Mechanism of Plasmonic Solar Cells 612.3 Important Optical Properties 622.3.1 Trapping of Light 632.3.2 Scattering and Absorption of Sunlight 632.3.3 Multiple Energy Levels 632.4 Advancements in Plasmonic Solar Cells 642.4.1 Direct Plasmonic Solar Cells 652.4.2 Plasmonic-Enhanced Solar Cell 692.4.3 Plasmonic Thin Film Solar Cells 692.4.4 Plasmonic Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (PDSSCs) 702.4.5 Plasmonic Photoelectrochemical Cells 712.4.6 Plasmonic Quantum Dot (QD) Solar Cells 712.4.7 Plasmonic Perovskite Solar Cells 722.4.8 Plasmonic Hybrid Solar Cells 722.5 Conclusion and Future Aspects 72Acknowledgements 73References 733 Tandem Solar Cell 83Umesh FegadeList of Abbreviations 833.1 Introduction 853.2 Review of Organic Tandem Solar Cell 863.3 Review of Inorganic Tandem Solar Cell 893.4 Conclusion 95References 964 Thin-Film Solar Cells 103Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Raja Gunasekaran, Santhosh Sivaraj, Saravanakumar Jaganathan and Rajasekar Rathanasamy4.1 Introduction 1044.2 Why Thin-Film Solar Cells? 1054.3 Amorphous Silicon 1054.4 Cadmium Telluride 1084.5 Copper Indium Diselenide Solar Cells 1114.6 Comparison Between Flexible a-Si:H, CdTe, and CIGS Cells and Applications 1124.7 Conclusion 113References 114Contents vii5 Biohybrid Solar Cells 117Sapana Jadoun and Ufana RiazAbbreviations 1175.1 Introduction 1185.2 Photovoltaics 1195.3 Solar Cells 1195.3.1 First-Generation 1205.3.2 Second-Generation 1205.3.3 Third-Generation 1205.3.4 Fourth-Generation 1215.4 Biohybrid Solar Cells 1215.5 Role of Photosynthesis 1225.6 Plant-Based Biohybrid Devices 1225.6.1 PS I–Based Biohybrid Devices 1235.6.2 PS II–Based Biohybrid Devices 1255.7 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 1265.8 Polymer and Semiconductors-Based Biohybrid Solar Cells 1265.9 Conclusion 129References 1296 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 137Santhosh Sivaraj, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, Mohankumar Anandraj, Moganapriya Chinnasamy and Rajasekar Rathanasamy6.1 Introduction 1386.2 Cell Architecture and Working Mechanism 1396.3 Fabrication of Simple DSSC in Lab Scale 1426.4 Electrodes 1446.5 Counter Electrode 1456.6 Blocking Layer 1466.7 Electrolytes Used 1476.7.1 Liquid-Based Electrolytes 1486.7.1.1 Electrical Additives 1486.7.1.2 Organic Solvents 1486.7.1.3 Ionic Liquids 1496.7.1.4 Iodide/Triiodide-Free Mediator and Redox Couples 1496.7.2 Quasi-Solid-State Electrolytes 1496.7.2.1 Thermoplastic-Based Polymer Electrolytes 1506.7.2.2 Thermosetting Polymer Electrolytes 1506.7.3 Solid-State Transport Materials 1506.7.3.1 Inorganic Hole Transport Materials 1516.7.3.2 Organic Hole Transport Materials 1516.7.3.3 Solid-State Ionic Conductors 1516.8 Commonly Used Natural Dyes in DSSC 1526.8.1 Chlorophyll 1526.8.2 Flavonoids 1526.8.3 Anthocyanins 1536.8.4 Carotenoids 1546.9 Calculations 1546.9.1 Power Conversion Efficiency 1546.9.2 Fill Factor 1636.9.3 Open-Circuit Voltage 1636.9.4 Short Circuit Current 1636.9.5 Determination of Energy Gap of Electrode Material Adsorbed With Natural Dye 1636.9.6 Absorption Coefficient 1646.9.7 Dye Adsorption 1646.10 Conclusion 164References 1657 Characterization and Theoretical Modeling of Solar Cells 169Masoud Darvish Ganji, Mahyar Rezvani and Sepideh Tanreh  7.1 Introduction 1707.2 Classification of SC 1727.2.1 Inorganic Solar Cells 1737.2.2 Organic Solar Cell 1737.3 Working Principle of DSSC 1757.4 Operation Principle of DSSC 1767.5 Photovoltaic Parameters 1777.6 Theoretical and Computational Methods 1817.6.1 Density Functional Theory (DFT) 1827.6.2 Basis Sets 1837.6.3 TDDFT Method 1837.6.4 Molecular Descriptors 1847.6.5 Force Field Parameterization for MD Simulations 1887.6.6 Excited States 1897.6.7 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 1907.6.8 Charge Transfer and Carrier Transport 1927.6.9 Coarse-Grained (CG) Simulations 1937.6.10 Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) Modeling 1937.6.11 Car-Parrinello Method 1957.6.12 Solvent Effects 1967.6.13 Global Reactivity Descriptors 1967.7 Conclusion 198References 1998 Efficient Performance Parameters for Solar Cells 217Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua8.1 Introduction 2188.1.1 Potential, Production, and Climate of Ankara 2258.2 Solar Radiation Intensity Calculation 2258.2.1 Horizontal Superficies 2258.2.1.1 On a Daily Basis Total Sun Irradiation 2258.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Sun Irradiation 2278.2.1.3 Momentary Total Sun Irradiation 2278.2.1.4 Direct and Diffuse Sun Radiation 2288.2.2 On Inclined Superficies, Computing Sun Irradiation Intensity 2288.2.2.1 Direct Momentary Sun Radiation 2288.2.2.2 Diffuse Sun Radiation 2288.2.2.3 Momentary Reflecting Radiation 2298.2.2.4 Total Sun Radiation 2298.3 Methodology 2298.3.1 The Solar Radiation Assessments by Correlation Models With MATLAB Simulation Software 2298.3.2 MATLAB Simulation Results and Findings 2338.3.3 For Ankara Province, the Determinants of the Most Efficiency Solar Cell With AHP Methodology 2338.4 Conclusions 238References 2409 Practices to Enhance Conversion Efficiencies in Solar Cell 247Andreea Irina Barzic9.1 Introduction 2479.2 Basics on Conversion Efficiency 2499.3 Approaches for Improving Conversion Efficiencies in Solar Cells 2539.4 Conclusion 264Acknowledgements 264References 26510 Solar Cell Efficiency Energy Materials 271Zeeshan Abid, Faiza Wahad, Sughra Gulzar, Muhammad Faheem Ashiq, Muhammad Shahid Aslam, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf10.1 Introduction 27210.2 Solar Cell Efficiency 27410.3 Historical Development of Solar Cell Materials 27510.4 Solar Cell Materials and Efficiencies 27710.4.1 Crystalline Silicon 27810.4.2 Silicon Thin-Film Alloys 28210.4.3 III-V Semiconductors 28410.4.4 Chalcogenide 28710.4.4.1 Chalcopyrites 28710.4.4.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 28810.4.5 Organic Materials 28910.4.6 Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Materials 29310.4.6.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Materials 29310.4.6.2 Perovskites 29610.4.7 Quantum Dots 30010.5 Conclusion and Prospects 302References 30311 Analytical Tools for Solar Cell 317Mohamad Saufi Rosmi, Ong Suu Wan, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed, Zul Adlan Mohd Hir and Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar11.1 Introduction 31811.2 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 31911.2.1 Application of Transient Absorption Spectroscopy in Solar Cells 32011.3 Electron Tomography 32311.3.1 Application of Electron Tomography (ET) in Solar Cells 32411.4 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy (C-AFM) 32711.4.1 Application of C-AFM in Solar Cells 32911.5 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 33011.5.1 Application of Scanning Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy for Solar Cells 33411.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy 33511.6.1 Application of Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy in Solar Cell 33811.7 Conclusion 340References 34012 Applications of Solar Cells 345Mohd Imran Ahamed and Naushad Anwar12.1 Introduction 34512.2 An Overview on Photovoltaic Cell 34812.2.1 History 34812.2.2 Working Principle of Solar Cell 34812.2.3 First-Generation Photovoltaic Cells: Crystalline Silicon Form 35112.2.4 Second-Generation Photovoltaic Cells: Thin-Film Solar Cells 35212.2.5 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 35312.3 Applications of Solar Cells 35412.3.1 Perovskite Solar Cell 35412.3.2 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 35512.3.3 Nanostructured Inorganic-Organic Heterojunction Solar Cells (NSIOHSCs) 35612.3.4 Polymer Solar Cells 35712.3.5 Quantum Dot Solar Cell (QDCs) 35812.3.6 Organic Solar Cells 36012.4 Conclusion and Summary 362References 36213 Challenges of Stability in Perovskite Solar Cells 371Mutayyab Afreen, Jazib Ali and Muhammad Bilal13.1 Introduction 37113.2 Degradation Phenomena and Stability Measures in Perovskite 37313.2.1 Thermal Stability 37313.2.2 Structural and Chemical Stability 37513.2.3 Oxygen and Moisture 37613.2.4 Visible and UV Light Exposure 37813.3 Stability-Interface Interplay 37913.3.1 Chemical Reaction at the Interface 37913.3.2 Degradation on the Top Electrode 38013.3.3 Hysteresis Phenomenon in PSC Devices 38113.4 Effect of Selective Contacts on Stability 38213.4.1 Electron-Transport Layers 38213.4.2 Hole Transport Layers 38413.4 Conclusion 387References 38714 State-of-the-Art and Prospective of Solar Cells 393Zahra Pezeshki and Abdelhalim ZekryAcronyms 39314.1 Introduction 39614.2 State-of-the-Art of Solar Cells 39614.2.1 Production Volume 40014.2.2 Cost Breakdown 40014.2.3 Main Technologies 40114.2.3.1 Si Solar Cell Arrays 40114.2.3.2 DSSCs 40314.2.3.3 Photoanodes 40414.2.3.4 C/Si Heterojunctions 40414.2.3.5 a-C/Si Heterojunctions 41014.2.3.6 Non-Fullerene Acceptor Bulk Heterojunctions 41014.2.3.7 a-Si 41114.2.3.8 Perovskites 41114.2.3.9 Metal-Halide–Based Perovskites 41314.2.3.10 Sn-Based Perovskites 41514.2.3.11 Heavily Doped Solar Cells 41614.2.3.12 PV Building Substrates 41614.2.3.13 Solar Tracking System 42214.2.3.14 Solar Concentrators 42514.2.3.15 Solar Power Satellite 42614.2.3.16 Roof-Top Solar PV System 42714.2.3.17 Short-Wavelength Solar-Blind Detectors 42814.2.3.18 GCPVS 42914.2.3.19 Microwave Heating in Si Solar Cell Fabrication 43114.2.3.20 Refrigeration PV System 43214.2.3.21 Solar Collectors and Receivers 43314.2.3.22 Solar Drying System 43514.2.3.23 Water Networks With Solar PV Energy 43614.2.3.24 Wind and Solar Integrated to Smart Grid 43714.2.3.25 Green Data Centers 44014.3 Prospective of Solar Cells 44314.4 Conclusion 445References 44715 Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells 461Faiza Wahad, Zeeshan Abid, Sughra Gulzar, Muhammad Shahid Aslam, Saqib Rafique, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf15.1 Introduction 46215.2 Device Architectures 46415.2.1 Conventional n-i-p Device Structure 46515.2.2 Inverted p-i-n Device Structure 46515.3 Optical Assessment 46615.3.1 Average Visible Transmittance 46615.3.2 Corresponding Color Temperature 46715.3.3 Color Rendering Index 46815.3.4 Transparency Color Perception 46815.3.5 Light Management 47115.4 Materials 47415.4.1 Photoactive Layer 47415.4.2 Charge Transport Layers (ETL and HTL) 47915.4.3 Transparent Electrode 48115.5 Applications 48415.5.1 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics 48415.5.2 Tandem Devices 48615.6 Conclusion 492References 49216 Flexible Solar Cells 505Santosh Patil, Rushi Jani, Nisarg Purabiarao, Archan Desai, Ishan Desai and Kshitij Bhargava16.1 Introduction 50516.1.1 Need for Solar Energy Harnessing 50516.1.2 Brief Overview of Generations of Solar Cells 50616.1.3 Limitations of Solar Cells 50816.1.4 What is Flexible Solar Cell (FSC)? 50916.2 Materials for FSCs 51016.2.1 Semiconductors 51016.2.2 Substrates 51216.2.3 Electrodes 51316.2.4 Encapsulations 51416.3 Thin-Film Deposition 51416.3.1 R2R Processing 51516.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition 51616.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 51716.3.4 Dip Coating 51816.3.5 Spin Coating 52016.3.6 Screen Printing 52116.4 Characterizations for FSCs 52216.4.1 Material Characterization 52316.4.2 Device Characterization 52916.5 Issues in FSCs 53116.6 Performance Comparison of RSCs and FSCs 53216.7 Applications of Flexible Solar Cell 53216.8 Conclusion 533References 534Index 537