Deepak Rawtani, PhD, received his PhD in nanobiotechnology. He has worked for more than 16 years in the fields of molecular medicine and biology. For the last ten years, he has served as an associate professor of forensic nanotechnology at the Institute of Research and Development, Gujarat Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, India. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor, Academic Advisor, and Director of Chemistry & EVSc Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on analytical chemistry, nanotechnology & advanced materials, sustainability, environmental management, and various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and books in his research fields.

• Preface xix1 Computer Forensics and Personal Digital Assistants 1Muhammad Qadeer, Chaudhery Ghazanfer Hussain and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain1.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Computer and Digital Forensics 21.2 Digital Forensics Classification 31.3 Digital Evidence 81.4 Information Used in Investigation to Find Digital Evidence 81.5 Short History of Digital/Computer Forensics 101.6 The World of Crimes 121.6.1 Cybercrimes vs. Traditional Crimes 121.7 Computer Forensics Investigation Steps 151.8 Report Generation of Forensic Findings Through Software Tools 171.9 Importance of Forensics Report 181.10 Guidelines for Report Writing 181.11 Objectives of Computer Forensics 191.12 Challenges Faced by Computer Forensics 20References 202 Network and Data Analysis Tools for Forensic Science 23Shrutika Singla, Shruthi Subhash and Amarnath Mishra2.1 Introduction 232.2 Necessity for Data Analysis 252.2.1 Operational Troubleshooting 252.2.2 Log Monitoring 252.2.3 Data Recovery 252.2.4 Data Acquisition 252.3 Data Analysis Process 262.3.1 Acquisition 262.3.2 Examination 262.3.3 Utilization 262.3.4 Review 262.4 Network Security and Forensics 262.5 Digital Forensic Investigation Process 272.5.1 Data Identification 282.5.2 Project Planning 282.5.3 Data Capture 292.5.4 Data Processing 292.5.5 Data Analysis 292.5.6 Report Generation 292.6 Tools for Network and Data Analysis 292.6.1 EnCase Forensic Imager Tool 302.6.2 Cellebrite UFED 312.6.3 FTK Imager Tool 312.6.4 Paladin Forensic Suite 322.6.5 Digital Forensic Framework (DFF) 322.6.6 Forensic Imager Tx 1 322.6.7 Tableau TD2U Forensic Duplicator 322.6.8 Oxygen Forensics Detective 332.6.9 SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit (SIFT) 332.6.10 Win Hex 332.6.11 Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) 342.6.12 WindowsSCOPE Toolkit 342.6.13 ProDiscover Forensics 342.6.14 Sleuth Kit 352.6.15 Caine 352.6.16 Magnet RAM Capture 352.6.17 X-Ways Forensics 362.6.18 WireShark Tool 362.6.19 Xplico 362.6.20 e-Fensee 362.7 Evolution of Network Data Analysis Tools Over the Years 372.8 Conclusion 37References 383 Cloud and Social Media Forensics 41Nilay Mistry and Sureel Vora3.1 Introduction 423.2 Background Study 423.2.1 Social Networking Trend Among Users 423.2.2 Pros and Cons of Social Networking and Chat Apps 433.2.3 Privacy Issues in Social Networking and Chat Apps 443.2.4 Usefulness of Personal Information for Law Enforcements 453.2.5 Cloud Computing and Social Media Applications 453.2.5.1 SaaS Model 453.2.5.2 PaaS Model 463.2.5.3 IaaS Model 463.3 Technical Study 463.3.1 User-Agent and Its Working 463.3.2 Automated Agents and Their User-Agent String 473.3.3 User Agent Spoofing and Sniffing 473.3.4 Link Forwarding and Rich Preview 473.3.5 WebView and its User Agent 483.3.6 HTTP Referrer and Referring Page 483.3.7 Application ID 483.4 Methodology 493.4.1 Testing Environment 493.4.2 Research and Analysis 493.4.2.1 Activities Performed 513.4.2.2 Information Gathered 523.4.2.3 Analysis of Gathered Information 533.4.3 Activity Performed - Opening the Forwarded Link 593.5 Protection Against Leakage 603.6 Conclusion 603.7 Future Work 61References 614 Vehicle Forensics 65Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao4.1 Introduction 654.1.1 Motives Behind Vehicular Theft 674.1.1.1 Insurance Fraud 674.1.1.2 Resale and Export 674.1.1.3 Temporary Transportation 684.1.1.4 Commitment of Another Crime 684.2 Intervehicle Communication and Vehicle Internal Networks 684.3 Classification of Vehicular Forensics 704.3.1 Automative Vehicle Forensics 714.3.1.1 Live Forensics 714.3.1.2 Post-Mortem Forensics 714.3.1.3 Physical Tools for Forensic Investigation 734.3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Forensics (UAV)/Drone Forensics 744.3.2.1 Methodology 744.3.2.2 Steps Involved in Drone Forensics 754.3.2.3 Challenges in UAV Forensics 764.4 Vehicle Identification Number 764.4.1 Placement in a Vehicle and Usage of a VIN 774.4.2 Vehicle Identification 784.4.2.1 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Certification Label 794.4.2.2 Anti-Theft Label 794.4.2.3 Stamping on Vehicle Parts 794.4.2.4 Secondary and Confidential VIN 794.5 Serial Number Restoration 794.5.1 Restoration Methods 804.5.1.1 Chemical Etching 804.5.1.2 Electrolytic Etching 814.5.1.3 Heat Treatment 814.5.1.4 Magnetic Particle Method 814.5.1.5 Electron Channeling Contrast 814.6 Conclusion 81References 825 Facial Recognition and Reconstruction 85Payal V. Bhatt, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani5.1 Introduction 865.2 Facial Recognition 865.3 Facial Reconstruction 875.4 Techniques for Facial Recognition 885.4.1 Image-Based Facial Recognition 895.4.1.1 Appearance-Based Method 895.4.1.2 Model-Based Method 905.4.1.3 Texture-Based Method 905.4.2 Video-Based Facial Recognition 915.4.2.1 Sequence-Based Method 915.4.2.2 Set-Based Method 925.5 Techniques for Facial Reconstruction 925.5.1 Manual Method 935.5.2 Graphical Method 945.5.3 Computerized Method 945.6 Challenges in Forensic Face Recognition 955.6.1 Facial Aging 965.6.2 Face Marks 975.6.3 Forensic Sketch Recognition 975.6.4 Face Recognition in Video 985.6.5 Near Infrared (NIR) Face Recognition 995.7 Soft Biometrics 995.8 Application Areas of Facial Recognition 1005.9 Application of Facial Reconstruction 1015.10 Conclusion 102References 1026 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 107Piyush K. Rao, Shreya Singh, Aayush Dey, Deepak Rawtani and Garvita ParikhAbbreviations 1086.1 Introduction 1086.2 Ten-Digit Fingerprint Classification 1106.3 Henry Faulds Classification System 1106.4 Manual Method for the Identification of Latent Fingerprint 1116.5 Need for Automation 1126.6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 1126.7 History of Automatic Fingerprint Identification System 1136.8 Automated Method of Analysis 1136.9 Segmentation 1146.10 Enhancement and Quality Assessment 1156.11 Feature Extraction 1176.12 Latent Fingerprint Matching 1186.13 Latent Fingerprint Database 1206.14 Conclusion 120References 1217 Forensic Sampling and Sample Preparation 125Disha Bhatnagar, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani7.1 Introduction 1267.2 Advancement in Technologies Used in Forensic Science 1267.3 Evidences 1277.3.1 Classification of Evidences 1277.3.1.1 Direct Evidence 1277.2.1.2 Circumstantial Evidence 1277.4 Collection of Evidences 1297.4.1 Sampling Methods 1307.5 Sample Preparation Techniques for Analytical Instruments 1337.5.1 Conventional Methods of Sample Preparation 1347.5.2 Solvent Extraction 1347.5.2.1 Distillation 1357.5.2.2 Acid Digestion 1357.5.2.3 Solid Phase Extraction 1367.5.2.4 Soxhlet Extraction 1377.5.3 Modern Methods of Sample Preparation 1387.5.3.1 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 1387.5.3.2 Microwave Digestion 1387.5.3.3 Ultrasonication-Assisted Extraction 1397.5.3.4 Microextraction 1397.5.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 1427.5.3.6 QuEChERS 1437.5.3.7 Membrane Extraction 1437.6 Conclusion 1447.7 Future Perspective 144References 1458 Spectroscopic Analysis Techniques in Forensic Science 149Payal V. Bhatt and Deepak Rawtani8.1 Introduction 1508.2 Spectroscopy 1508.2.1 Spectroscopy and its Applications 1538.3 Spectroscopy and Forensics 1558.4 Spectroscopic Techniques and their Forensic Applications 1568.4.1 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 1568.4.1.1 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 1578.4.2 UV/Visible Spectroscopy 1598.4.2.1 Application of UV/Vis Spectroscopy in Forensics 1608.4.3 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 1628.4.3.1 Application of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 1638.4.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 1658.4.4.1 Application of Infrared Spectroscopy in Forensics 1668.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 1678.4.5.1 Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Forensics 1688.4.6 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy 1718.4.6.1 Application of Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 1728.4.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1738.4.7.1 Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 1748.4.8 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 1768.4.8.1 Application of Atomic Emission Spectroscopy in Forensics 1778.4.9 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1788.4.9.1 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1798.4.10 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1818.4.10.1 Application of Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1828.4.11 Phosphorescence Spectroscopy 1838.4.11.1 Application of Phosphorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1848.4.12 Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1868.4.12.1 Application of Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1878.4.13 Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy 1888.4.13.1 Application of Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1898.5 Conclusion 190References 1909 Emerging Analytical Techniques in Forensic Samples 199Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao9.1 Introduction 1999.2 Separation Techniques 2009.2.1 Chromatography 2009.2.1.1 Gas Chromatography 2029.2.2 Liquid Chromatography 2089.2.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 2119.3 Mass Spectrometry 2139.4 Tandem Mass (MS/MS) 2199.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 2209.6 Laser Ablation–Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 2219.7 Conclusion 222References 22310 DNA Sequencing and Rapid DNA Tests 225Archana Singh and Deepak Rawtani10.1 Introduction 22610.1.1 DNA Sequencing 22610.1.2 DNA Profiling Analysis Methods 22810.1.3 The Rapid DNA Test 22810.2 DNA – The Hereditary Material 23010.2.1 DNA – Structure and Genetic Information 23010.3 DNA Sequencing 23110.3.1 Maxam and Gilbert Method 23210.3.2 Chain Termination Method or Sanger’s Sequencing 23310.3.3 Automated Method 23510.3.4 Semiautomated Method 23510.3.5 Pyrosequencing Method 23610.3.6 Clone by Clone Sequencing Method 23710.3.7 The Whole-Genome Shotgun Sequencing Method 23710.3.8 Next-Generation DNA Sequencing 23810.4 Laboratory Processing and DNA Evidence Analysis 23810.4.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 23910.4.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 23910.4.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STR) 24110.4.4 Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) 24110.4.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (aflp) 24210.4.6 Y-Chromosome 24210.5 Rapid DNA Test 24310.5.1 The Evolution of the Rapid DNA Test 24410.5.2 Rapid DNA Instrument 24510.5.3 Methodology of Rapid DNA 25010.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 250References 25111 Sensor-Based Devices for Trace Evidence 265Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani11.1 Introduction 26611.2 Immunosensors in Forensic Science 26711.2.1 Direct Immunosensing Strategies 26811.2.1.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance 26811.2.1.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 27411.2.1.3 Piezoelectric Immunosensors 27511.2.2 Indirect Immunosensing Strategies 27611.2.2.1 Optical Immunosensors 27611.2.2.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 28011.3 Genosensors and Cell-Based Biosensors in Forensic Science 28211.4 Aptasensors in Forensic Science 28311.4.1 Forensic Applications of Aptasensors 28711.5 Enzymatic Biosensors in Forensic Science 28811.5.1 Applications of Enzymatic Biosensors for Trace Evidence Analysis 28911.6 Conclusion 289References 29012 Biomimetic Devices for Trace Evidence Detection 299Manika and Astha Pandey12.1 Introduction 30012.2 Tools or Machines for Biomimetics 30112.3 Methods of Biomimetics 30212.4 Applications 30212.4.1 Detection of Trace Evidences 30212.4.1.1 Biomimetic Sniffing 30212.4.1.2 L-Nicotine Detection 30712.4.1.3 TNT Detection 30712.4.2 Hybrid Materials to Medical Devices 30912.4.2.1 Smart Drug Delivery Micro and Nanodevices 30912.4.2.2 Nanodevices for Combination of Therapy and Theranostics 31012.4.2.3 Continuous Biosensors for Glucose 31012.4.2.4 Electro-Active Lenses 31112.4.2.5 Smart Tattoos 31112.5 Challenges for Biomimetics in Practice 31112.6 Conclusion 312References 31413 Forensic Photography 315Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani13.1 Introduction 31613.2 Forensic Photography and Its Purpose 31613.3 Modern Principles of Forensic Photography 31813.4 Fundamental Rules of Forensic Photography 31913.4.1 Rule Number 1. Filling the Frame Space 31913.4.2 Rule Number 2. Expansion of Depth of Field 32013.4.3 Rule Number 3. Positioning the Film Plane 32113.5 Camera Setup and Apparatus for Forensic Photography 32113.6 The Dynamics of a Digital Camera 32213.6.1 Types of Digital Cameras 32313.6.2 Sensor Architecture 32413.6.2.1 Full Frame 32413.6.2.2 Frame Transfer 32513.6.2.3 Interline Architecture 32513.6.3 Spectral Response 32513.6.4 Light Sensitivity and Noise Cancellation 32613.6.5 Dynamic Range 32613.6.6 Blooming and Anti-Blooming 32613.6.7 Signal to Noise Ratio 32613.6.8 Spatial Resolution 32713.6.9 Frame Rate 32713.7 Common Crime Scenarios and How They Must be Photographed 32713.7.1 Photography of Road Traffic Accidents 32813.7.2 Photography of Homicides 32913.7.3 Arson Crime Scenes 33013.7.4 Photography of Print Impressions at a Crime Scene 33013.7.5 Tire Marks and Their Photography 33113.7.6 Photography of Skin Wounds 33113.8 Conclusion 332References 33214 Scanners and Microscopes 335Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani14.1 Introduction 33614.2 Scanners in Forensic Science 33714.2.1 Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.1 Benefits of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.2 Drawbacks of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.3 Applications in Forensic Science 33914.2.2 Structured Light Scanners 34114.2.2.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34114.2.3 Intraoral Optical Scanners 34214.2.3.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34214.2.4 Computerized Tomography Scanner 34314.2.4.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34314.3 Microscopes in Forensic Science 34414.3.1 Light Microscopes 34514.3.1.1 Compound Microscope 34514.3.1.2 Comparison Microscope 34714.3.1.3 Polarizing Microscope 34814.3.1.4 Stereoscopic Microscope 34814.3.2 Electron Microscopes 34914.3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 34914.3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 35014.3.3 Probing Microscopes 35014.3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscope 35014.4 Conclusion 355References 35615 Recent Advances in Forensic Tools 361Tatenda Justice Gunda, Charles Muchabaiwa, Piyush K. Rao, Aayush Dey and Deepak Rawtani15.1 Introduction 36215.1.1 Recent Forensic Tool: Trends in Crime Investigations 36315.1.2 Recent Forensic Device 36415.2 Classification of Forensic Tools and Devices 36415.2.1 Forensic Chemistry 36515.2.1.1 Sensors 36515.2.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques 36815.2.1.3 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) 36915.2.1.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 37015.2.1.5 Liquid Chromatography (LC/MS/MS) Rapid Toxicology Screening System 37015.2.1.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 37215.2.1.7 Drug Testing Toxicology of Hair 37215.2.2 Question Document and Fingerprinting 37315.2.2.1 Electrostatic Detection Analysis (esda) 37415.2.2.2 Video Spectral Comparator 37515.2.2.3 Fingerprinting 37615.2.3 Forensic Physics 37715.2.3.1 Facial Recognition 37715.2.3.2 3D Facial Reconstruction 37815.2.3.3 Arsenal Automated Ballistic Identification System (ABIS) 37815.2.3.4 Audio Video Aided Forensic Analysis 37915.2.3.5 Brain Electrical Oscillations Signature (beos) 37915.2.3.6 Phenom Desktop Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 37915.2.3.7 X-Ray Spectroscopy EDX 38015.2.3.8 Drones/UAVs 38015.2.4 Forensic Biology 38215.2.4.1 Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) 38415.2.4.2 Virtopsy 38415.2.4.3 Three-Dimensional Imaging System 38515.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 385References 38616 Future Aspects of Modern Forensic Tools and Devices 393Swathi Satish, Gargi Phadke and Deepak Rawtani16.1 Introduction 39416.2 Forensic Tools 39516.2.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Tools 39616.2.2 Future Facets of Forensic Tools 39716.2.2.1 Analytical Forensic Tools 39716.2.2.2 Digital Forensic Tools 39916.3 Forensic Devices 40316.3.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Devices 40316.3.2 Future Aspects of Forensic Devices 40416.4 Conclusion 409References 410Index 415

Deepak Rawtani, PhD, received his PhD in nanobiotechnology. He has worked for more than 16 years in the fields of molecular medicine and biology. For the last ten years, he has served as an associate professor of forensic nanotechnology at the Institute of Research and Development, Gujarat Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, India. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor, Academic Advisor, and Director of Chemistry & EVSc Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on analytical chemistry, nanotechnology & advanced materials, sustainability, environmental management, and various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and books in his research fields.

• Preface xix1 Computer Forensics and Personal Digital Assistants 1Muhammad Qadeer, Chaudhery Ghazanfer Hussain and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain1.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Computer and Digital Forensics 21.2 Digital Forensics Classification 31.3 Digital Evidence 81.4 Information Used in Investigation to Find Digital Evidence 81.5 Short History of Digital/Computer Forensics 101.6 The World of Crimes 121.6.1 Cybercrimes vs. Traditional Crimes 121.7 Computer Forensics Investigation Steps 151.8 Report Generation of Forensic Findings Through Software Tools 171.9 Importance of Forensics Report 181.10 Guidelines for Report Writing 181.11 Objectives of Computer Forensics 191.12 Challenges Faced by Computer Forensics 20References 202 Network and Data Analysis Tools for Forensic Science 23Shrutika Singla, Shruthi Subhash and Amarnath Mishra2.1 Introduction 232.2 Necessity for Data Analysis 252.2.1 Operational Troubleshooting 252.2.2 Log Monitoring 252.2.3 Data Recovery 252.2.4 Data Acquisition 252.3 Data Analysis Process 262.3.1 Acquisition 262.3.2 Examination 262.3.3 Utilization 262.3.4 Review 262.4 Network Security and Forensics 262.5 Digital Forensic Investigation Process 272.5.1 Data Identification 282.5.2 Project Planning 282.5.3 Data Capture 292.5.4 Data Processing 292.5.5 Data Analysis 292.5.6 Report Generation 292.6 Tools for Network and Data Analysis 292.6.1 EnCase Forensic Imager Tool 302.6.2 Cellebrite UFED 312.6.3 FTK Imager Tool 312.6.4 Paladin Forensic Suite 322.6.5 Digital Forensic Framework (DFF) 322.6.6 Forensic Imager Tx 1 322.6.7 Tableau TD2U Forensic Duplicator 322.6.8 Oxygen Forensics Detective 332.6.9 SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit (SIFT) 332.6.10 Win Hex 332.6.11 Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) 342.6.12 WindowsSCOPE Toolkit 342.6.13 ProDiscover Forensics 342.6.14 Sleuth Kit 352.6.15 Caine 352.6.16 Magnet RAM Capture 352.6.17 X-Ways Forensics 362.6.18 WireShark Tool 362.6.19 Xplico 362.6.20 e-Fensee 362.7 Evolution of Network Data Analysis Tools Over the Years 372.8 Conclusion 37References 383 Cloud and Social Media Forensics 41Nilay Mistry and Sureel Vora3.1 Introduction 423.2 Background Study 423.2.1 Social Networking Trend Among Users 423.2.2 Pros and Cons of Social Networking and Chat Apps 433.2.3 Privacy Issues in Social Networking and Chat Apps 443.2.4 Usefulness of Personal Information for Law Enforcements 453.2.5 Cloud Computing and Social Media Applications 453.2.5.1 SaaS Model 453.2.5.2 PaaS Model 463.2.5.3 IaaS Model 463.3 Technical Study 463.3.1 User-Agent and Its Working 463.3.2 Automated Agents and Their User-Agent String 473.3.3 User Agent Spoofing and Sniffing 473.3.4 Link Forwarding and Rich Preview 473.3.5 WebView and its User Agent 483.3.6 HTTP Referrer and Referring Page 483.3.7 Application ID 483.4 Methodology 493.4.1 Testing Environment 493.4.2 Research and Analysis 493.4.2.1 Activities Performed 513.4.2.2 Information Gathered 523.4.2.3 Analysis of Gathered Information 533.4.3 Activity Performed - Opening the Forwarded Link 593.5 Protection Against Leakage 603.6 Conclusion 603.7 Future Work 61References 614 Vehicle Forensics 65Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao4.1 Introduction 654.1.1 Motives Behind Vehicular Theft 674.1.1.1 Insurance Fraud 674.1.1.2 Resale and Export 674.1.1.3 Temporary Transportation 684.1.1.4 Commitment of Another Crime 684.2 Intervehicle Communication and Vehicle Internal Networks 684.3 Classification of Vehicular Forensics 704.3.1 Automative Vehicle Forensics 714.3.1.1 Live Forensics 714.3.1.2 Post-Mortem Forensics 714.3.1.3 Physical Tools for Forensic Investigation 734.3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Forensics (UAV)/Drone Forensics 744.3.2.1 Methodology 744.3.2.2 Steps Involved in Drone Forensics 754.3.2.3 Challenges in UAV Forensics 764.4 Vehicle Identification Number 764.4.1 Placement in a Vehicle and Usage of a VIN 774.4.2 Vehicle Identification 784.4.2.1 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Certification Label 794.4.2.2 Anti-Theft Label 794.4.2.3 Stamping on Vehicle Parts 794.4.2.4 Secondary and Confidential VIN 794.5 Serial Number Restoration 794.5.1 Restoration Methods 804.5.1.1 Chemical Etching 804.5.1.2 Electrolytic Etching 814.5.1.3 Heat Treatment 814.5.1.4 Magnetic Particle Method 814.5.1.5 Electron Channeling Contrast 814.6 Conclusion 81References 825 Facial Recognition and Reconstruction 85Payal V. Bhatt, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani5.1 Introduction 865.2 Facial Recognition 865.3 Facial Reconstruction 875.4 Techniques for Facial Recognition 885.4.1 Image-Based Facial Recognition 895.4.1.1 Appearance-Based Method 895.4.1.2 Model-Based Method 905.4.1.3 Texture-Based Method 905.4.2 Video-Based Facial Recognition 915.4.2.1 Sequence-Based Method 915.4.2.2 Set-Based Method 925.5 Techniques for Facial Reconstruction 925.5.1 Manual Method 935.5.2 Graphical Method 945.5.3 Computerized Method 945.6 Challenges in Forensic Face Recognition 955.6.1 Facial Aging 965.6.2 Face Marks 975.6.3 Forensic Sketch Recognition 975.6.4 Face Recognition in Video 985.6.5 Near Infrared (NIR) Face Recognition 995.7 Soft Biometrics 995.8 Application Areas of Facial Recognition 1005.9 Application of Facial Reconstruction 1015.10 Conclusion 102References 1026 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 107Piyush K. Rao, Shreya Singh, Aayush Dey, Deepak Rawtani and Garvita ParikhAbbreviations 1086.1 Introduction 1086.2 Ten-Digit Fingerprint Classification 1106.3 Henry Faulds Classification System 1106.4 Manual Method for the Identification of Latent Fingerprint 1116.5 Need for Automation 1126.6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 1126.7 History of Automatic Fingerprint Identification System 1136.8 Automated Method of Analysis 1136.9 Segmentation 1146.10 Enhancement and Quality Assessment 1156.11 Feature Extraction 1176.12 Latent Fingerprint Matching 1186.13 Latent Fingerprint Database 1206.14 Conclusion 120References 1217 Forensic Sampling and Sample Preparation 125Disha Bhatnagar, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani7.1 Introduction 1267.2 Advancement in Technologies Used in Forensic Science 1267.3 Evidences 1277.3.1 Classification of Evidences 1277.3.1.1 Direct Evidence 1277.2.1.2 Circumstantial Evidence 1277.4 Collection of Evidences 1297.4.1 Sampling Methods 1307.5 Sample Preparation Techniques for Analytical Instruments 1337.5.1 Conventional Methods of Sample Preparation 1347.5.2 Solvent Extraction 1347.5.2.1 Distillation 1357.5.2.2 Acid Digestion 1357.5.2.3 Solid Phase Extraction 1367.5.2.4 Soxhlet Extraction 1377.5.3 Modern Methods of Sample Preparation 1387.5.3.1 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 1387.5.3.2 Microwave Digestion 1387.5.3.3 Ultrasonication-Assisted Extraction 1397.5.3.4 Microextraction 1397.5.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 1427.5.3.6 QuEChERS 1437.5.3.7 Membrane Extraction 1437.6 Conclusion 1447.7 Future Perspective 144References 1458 Spectroscopic Analysis Techniques in Forensic Science 149Payal V. Bhatt and Deepak Rawtani8.1 Introduction 1508.2 Spectroscopy 1508.2.1 Spectroscopy and its Applications 1538.3 Spectroscopy and Forensics 1558.4 Spectroscopic Techniques and their Forensic Applications 1568.4.1 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 1568.4.1.1 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 1578.4.2 UV/Visible Spectroscopy 1598.4.2.1 Application of UV/Vis Spectroscopy in Forensics 1608.4.3 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 1628.4.3.1 Application of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 1638.4.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 1658.4.4.1 Application of Infrared Spectroscopy in Forensics 1668.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 1678.4.5.1 Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Forensics 1688.4.6 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy 1718.4.6.1 Application of Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 1728.4.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1738.4.7.1 Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 1748.4.8 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 1768.4.8.1 Application of Atomic Emission Spectroscopy in Forensics 1778.4.9 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1788.4.9.1 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1798.4.10 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1818.4.10.1 Application of Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1828.4.11 Phosphorescence Spectroscopy 1838.4.11.1 Application of Phosphorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1848.4.12 Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1868.4.12.1 Application of Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1878.4.13 Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy 1888.4.13.1 Application of Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1898.5 Conclusion 190References 1909 Emerging Analytical Techniques in Forensic Samples 199Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao9.1 Introduction 1999.2 Separation Techniques 2009.2.1 Chromatography 2009.2.1.1 Gas Chromatography 2029.2.2 Liquid Chromatography 2089.2.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 2119.3 Mass Spectrometry 2139.4 Tandem Mass (MS/MS) 2199.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 2209.6 Laser Ablation–Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 2219.7 Conclusion 222References 22310 DNA Sequencing and Rapid DNA Tests 225Archana Singh and Deepak Rawtani10.1 Introduction 22610.1.1 DNA Sequencing 22610.1.2 DNA Profiling Analysis Methods 22810.1.3 The Rapid DNA Test 22810.2 DNA – The Hereditary Material 23010.2.1 DNA – Structure and Genetic Information 23010.3 DNA Sequencing 23110.3.1 Maxam and Gilbert Method 23210.3.2 Chain Termination Method or Sanger’s Sequencing 23310.3.3 Automated Method 23510.3.4 Semiautomated Method 23510.3.5 Pyrosequencing Method 23610.3.6 Clone by Clone Sequencing Method 23710.3.7 The Whole-Genome Shotgun Sequencing Method 23710.3.8 Next-Generation DNA Sequencing 23810.4 Laboratory Processing and DNA Evidence Analysis 23810.4.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 23910.4.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 23910.4.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STR) 24110.4.4 Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) 24110.4.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (aflp) 24210.4.6 Y-Chromosome 24210.5 Rapid DNA Test 24310.5.1 The Evolution of the Rapid DNA Test 24410.5.2 Rapid DNA Instrument 24510.5.3 Methodology of Rapid DNA 25010.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 250References 25111 Sensor-Based Devices for Trace Evidence 265Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani11.1 Introduction 26611.2 Immunosensors in Forensic Science 26711.2.1 Direct Immunosensing Strategies 26811.2.1.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance 26811.2.1.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 27411.2.1.3 Piezoelectric Immunosensors 27511.2.2 Indirect Immunosensing Strategies 27611.2.2.1 Optical Immunosensors 27611.2.2.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 28011.3 Genosensors and Cell-Based Biosensors in Forensic Science 28211.4 Aptasensors in Forensic Science 28311.4.1 Forensic Applications of Aptasensors 28711.5 Enzymatic Biosensors in Forensic Science 28811.5.1 Applications of Enzymatic Biosensors for Trace Evidence Analysis 28911.6 Conclusion 289References 29012 Biomimetic Devices for Trace Evidence Detection 299Manika and Astha Pandey12.1 Introduction 30012.2 Tools or Machines for Biomimetics 30112.3 Methods of Biomimetics 30212.4 Applications 30212.4.1 Detection of Trace Evidences 30212.4.1.1 Biomimetic Sniffing 30212.4.1.2 L-Nicotine Detection 30712.4.1.3 TNT Detection 30712.4.2 Hybrid Materials to Medical Devices 30912.4.2.1 Smart Drug Delivery Micro and Nanodevices 30912.4.2.2 Nanodevices for Combination of Therapy and Theranostics 31012.4.2.3 Continuous Biosensors for Glucose 31012.4.2.4 Electro-Active Lenses 31112.4.2.5 Smart Tattoos 31112.5 Challenges for Biomimetics in Practice 31112.6 Conclusion 312References 31413 Forensic Photography 315Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani13.1 Introduction 31613.2 Forensic Photography and Its Purpose 31613.3 Modern Principles of Forensic Photography 31813.4 Fundamental Rules of Forensic Photography 31913.4.1 Rule Number 1. Filling the Frame Space 31913.4.2 Rule Number 2. Expansion of Depth of Field 32013.4.3 Rule Number 3. Positioning the Film Plane 32113.5 Camera Setup and Apparatus for Forensic Photography 32113.6 The Dynamics of a Digital Camera 32213.6.1 Types of Digital Cameras 32313.6.2 Sensor Architecture 32413.6.2.1 Full Frame 32413.6.2.2 Frame Transfer 32513.6.2.3 Interline Architecture 32513.6.3 Spectral Response 32513.6.4 Light Sensitivity and Noise Cancellation 32613.6.5 Dynamic Range 32613.6.6 Blooming and Anti-Blooming 32613.6.7 Signal to Noise Ratio 32613.6.8 Spatial Resolution 32713.6.9 Frame Rate 32713.7 Common Crime Scenarios and How They Must be Photographed 32713.7.1 Photography of Road Traffic Accidents 32813.7.2 Photography of Homicides 32913.7.3 Arson Crime Scenes 33013.7.4 Photography of Print Impressions at a Crime Scene 33013.7.5 Tire Marks and Their Photography 33113.7.6 Photography of Skin Wounds 33113.8 Conclusion 332References 33214 Scanners and Microscopes 335Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani14.1 Introduction 33614.2 Scanners in Forensic Science 33714.2.1 Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.1 Benefits of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.2 Drawbacks of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.3 Applications in Forensic Science 33914.2.2 Structured Light Scanners 34114.2.2.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34114.2.3 Intraoral Optical Scanners 34214.2.3.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34214.2.4 Computerized Tomography Scanner 34314.2.4.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34314.3 Microscopes in Forensic Science 34414.3.1 Light Microscopes 34514.3.1.1 Compound Microscope 34514.3.1.2 Comparison Microscope 34714.3.1.3 Polarizing Microscope 34814.3.1.4 Stereoscopic Microscope 34814.3.2 Electron Microscopes 34914.3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 34914.3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 35014.3.3 Probing Microscopes 35014.3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscope 35014.4 Conclusion 355References 35615 Recent Advances in Forensic Tools 361Tatenda Justice Gunda, Charles Muchabaiwa, Piyush K. Rao, Aayush Dey and Deepak Rawtani15.1 Introduction 36215.1.1 Recent Forensic Tool: Trends in Crime Investigations 36315.1.2 Recent Forensic Device 36415.2 Classification of Forensic Tools and Devices 36415.2.1 Forensic Chemistry 36515.2.1.1 Sensors 36515.2.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques 36815.2.1.3 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) 36915.2.1.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 37015.2.1.5 Liquid Chromatography (LC/MS/MS) Rapid Toxicology Screening System 37015.2.1.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 37215.2.1.7 Drug Testing Toxicology of Hair 37215.2.2 Question Document and Fingerprinting 37315.2.2.1 Electrostatic Detection Analysis (esda) 37415.2.2.2 Video Spectral Comparator 37515.2.2.3 Fingerprinting 37615.2.3 Forensic Physics 37715.2.3.1 Facial Recognition 37715.2.3.2 3D Facial Reconstruction 37815.2.3.3 Arsenal Automated Ballistic Identification System (ABIS) 37815.2.3.4 Audio Video Aided Forensic Analysis 37915.2.3.5 Brain Electrical Oscillations Signature (beos) 37915.2.3.6 Phenom Desktop Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 37915.2.3.7 X-Ray Spectroscopy EDX 38015.2.3.8 Drones/UAVs 38015.2.4 Forensic Biology 38215.2.4.1 Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) 38415.2.4.2 Virtopsy 38415.2.4.3 Three-Dimensional Imaging System 38515.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 385References 38616 Future Aspects of Modern Forensic Tools and Devices 393Swathi Satish, Gargi Phadke and Deepak Rawtani16.1 Introduction 39416.2 Forensic Tools 39516.2.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Tools 39616.2.2 Future Facets of Forensic Tools 39716.2.2.1 Analytical Forensic Tools 39716.2.2.2 Digital Forensic Tools 39916.3 Forensic Devices 40316.3.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Devices 40316.3.2 Future Aspects of Forensic Devices 40416.4 Conclusion 409References 410Index 415

Deepak Rawtani, PhD, received his PhD in nanobiotechnology. He has worked for more than 16 years in the fields of molecular medicine and biology. For the last ten years, he has served as an associate professor of forensic nanotechnology at the Institute of Research and Development, Gujarat Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, India. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor, Academic Advisor, and Director of Chemistry & EVSc Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on analytical chemistry, nanotechnology & advanced materials, sustainability, environmental management, and various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and books in his research fields.

• Preface xix1 Computer Forensics and Personal Digital Assistants 1Muhammad Qadeer, Chaudhery Ghazanfer Hussain and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain1.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Computer and Digital Forensics 21.2 Digital Forensics Classification 31.3 Digital Evidence 81.4 Information Used in Investigation to Find Digital Evidence 81.5 Short History of Digital/Computer Forensics 101.6 The World of Crimes 121.6.1 Cybercrimes vs. Traditional Crimes 121.7 Computer Forensics Investigation Steps 151.8 Report Generation of Forensic Findings Through Software Tools 171.9 Importance of Forensics Report 181.10 Guidelines for Report Writing 181.11 Objectives of Computer Forensics 191.12 Challenges Faced by Computer Forensics 20References 202 Network and Data Analysis Tools for Forensic Science 23Shrutika Singla, Shruthi Subhash and Amarnath Mishra2.1 Introduction 232.2 Necessity for Data Analysis 252.2.1 Operational Troubleshooting 252.2.2 Log Monitoring 252.2.3 Data Recovery 252.2.4 Data Acquisition 252.3 Data Analysis Process 262.3.1 Acquisition 262.3.2 Examination 262.3.3 Utilization 262.3.4 Review 262.4 Network Security and Forensics 262.5 Digital Forensic Investigation Process 272.5.1 Data Identification 282.5.2 Project Planning 282.5.3 Data Capture 292.5.4 Data Processing 292.5.5 Data Analysis 292.5.6 Report Generation 292.6 Tools for Network and Data Analysis 292.6.1 EnCase Forensic Imager Tool 302.6.2 Cellebrite UFED 312.6.3 FTK Imager Tool 312.6.4 Paladin Forensic Suite 322.6.5 Digital Forensic Framework (DFF) 322.6.6 Forensic Imager Tx 1 322.6.7 Tableau TD2U Forensic Duplicator 322.6.8 Oxygen Forensics Detective 332.6.9 SANS Investigative Forensic Toolkit (SIFT) 332.6.10 Win Hex 332.6.11 Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) 342.6.12 WindowsSCOPE Toolkit 342.6.13 ProDiscover Forensics 342.6.14 Sleuth Kit 352.6.15 Caine 352.6.16 Magnet RAM Capture 352.6.17 X-Ways Forensics 362.6.18 WireShark Tool 362.6.19 Xplico 362.6.20 e-Fensee 362.7 Evolution of Network Data Analysis Tools Over the Years 372.8 Conclusion 37References 383 Cloud and Social Media Forensics 41Nilay Mistry and Sureel Vora3.1 Introduction 423.2 Background Study 423.2.1 Social Networking Trend Among Users 423.2.2 Pros and Cons of Social Networking and Chat Apps 433.2.3 Privacy Issues in Social Networking and Chat Apps 443.2.4 Usefulness of Personal Information for Law Enforcements 453.2.5 Cloud Computing and Social Media Applications 453.2.5.1 SaaS Model 453.2.5.2 PaaS Model 463.2.5.3 IaaS Model 463.3 Technical Study 463.3.1 User-Agent and Its Working 463.3.2 Automated Agents and Their User-Agent String 473.3.3 User Agent Spoofing and Sniffing 473.3.4 Link Forwarding and Rich Preview 473.3.5 WebView and its User Agent 483.3.6 HTTP Referrer and Referring Page 483.3.7 Application ID 483.4 Methodology 493.4.1 Testing Environment 493.4.2 Research and Analysis 493.4.2.1 Activities Performed 513.4.2.2 Information Gathered 523.4.2.3 Analysis of Gathered Information 533.4.3 Activity Performed - Opening the Forwarded Link 593.5 Protection Against Leakage 603.6 Conclusion 603.7 Future Work 61References 614 Vehicle Forensics 65Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao4.1 Introduction 654.1.1 Motives Behind Vehicular Theft 674.1.1.1 Insurance Fraud 674.1.1.2 Resale and Export 674.1.1.3 Temporary Transportation 684.1.1.4 Commitment of Another Crime 684.2 Intervehicle Communication and Vehicle Internal Networks 684.3 Classification of Vehicular Forensics 704.3.1 Automative Vehicle Forensics 714.3.1.1 Live Forensics 714.3.1.2 Post-Mortem Forensics 714.3.1.3 Physical Tools for Forensic Investigation 734.3.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Forensics (UAV)/Drone Forensics 744.3.2.1 Methodology 744.3.2.2 Steps Involved in Drone Forensics 754.3.2.3 Challenges in UAV Forensics 764.4 Vehicle Identification Number 764.4.1 Placement in a Vehicle and Usage of a VIN 774.4.2 Vehicle Identification 784.4.2.1 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Certification Label 794.4.2.2 Anti-Theft Label 794.4.2.3 Stamping on Vehicle Parts 794.4.2.4 Secondary and Confidential VIN 794.5 Serial Number Restoration 794.5.1 Restoration Methods 804.5.1.1 Chemical Etching 804.5.1.2 Electrolytic Etching 814.5.1.3 Heat Treatment 814.5.1.4 Magnetic Particle Method 814.5.1.5 Electron Channeling Contrast 814.6 Conclusion 81References 825 Facial Recognition and Reconstruction 85Payal V. Bhatt, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani5.1 Introduction 865.2 Facial Recognition 865.3 Facial Reconstruction 875.4 Techniques for Facial Recognition 885.4.1 Image-Based Facial Recognition 895.4.1.1 Appearance-Based Method 895.4.1.2 Model-Based Method 905.4.1.3 Texture-Based Method 905.4.2 Video-Based Facial Recognition 915.4.2.1 Sequence-Based Method 915.4.2.2 Set-Based Method 925.5 Techniques for Facial Reconstruction 925.5.1 Manual Method 935.5.2 Graphical Method 945.5.3 Computerized Method 945.6 Challenges in Forensic Face Recognition 955.6.1 Facial Aging 965.6.2 Face Marks 975.6.3 Forensic Sketch Recognition 975.6.4 Face Recognition in Video 985.6.5 Near Infrared (NIR) Face Recognition 995.7 Soft Biometrics 995.8 Application Areas of Facial Recognition 1005.9 Application of Facial Reconstruction 1015.10 Conclusion 102References 1026 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 107Piyush K. Rao, Shreya Singh, Aayush Dey, Deepak Rawtani and Garvita ParikhAbbreviations 1086.1 Introduction 1086.2 Ten-Digit Fingerprint Classification 1106.3 Henry Faulds Classification System 1106.4 Manual Method for the Identification of Latent Fingerprint 1116.5 Need for Automation 1126.6 Automated Fingerprint Identification System 1126.7 History of Automatic Fingerprint Identification System 1136.8 Automated Method of Analysis 1136.9 Segmentation 1146.10 Enhancement and Quality Assessment 1156.11 Feature Extraction 1176.12 Latent Fingerprint Matching 1186.13 Latent Fingerprint Database 1206.14 Conclusion 120References 1217 Forensic Sampling and Sample Preparation 125Disha Bhatnagar, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani7.1 Introduction 1267.2 Advancement in Technologies Used in Forensic Science 1267.3 Evidences 1277.3.1 Classification of Evidences 1277.3.1.1 Direct Evidence 1277.2.1.2 Circumstantial Evidence 1277.4 Collection of Evidences 1297.4.1 Sampling Methods 1307.5 Sample Preparation Techniques for Analytical Instruments 1337.5.1 Conventional Methods of Sample Preparation 1347.5.2 Solvent Extraction 1347.5.2.1 Distillation 1357.5.2.2 Acid Digestion 1357.5.2.3 Solid Phase Extraction 1367.5.2.4 Soxhlet Extraction 1377.5.3 Modern Methods of Sample Preparation 1387.5.3.1 Accelerated Solvent Extraction 1387.5.3.2 Microwave Digestion 1387.5.3.3 Ultrasonication-Assisted Extraction 1397.5.3.4 Microextraction 1397.5.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 1427.5.3.6 QuEChERS 1437.5.3.7 Membrane Extraction 1437.6 Conclusion 1447.7 Future Perspective 144References 1458 Spectroscopic Analysis Techniques in Forensic Science 149Payal V. Bhatt and Deepak Rawtani8.1 Introduction 1508.2 Spectroscopy 1508.2.1 Spectroscopy and its Applications 1538.3 Spectroscopy and Forensics 1558.4 Spectroscopic Techniques and their Forensic Applications 1568.4.1 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 1568.4.1.1 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 1578.4.2 UV/Visible Spectroscopy 1598.4.2.1 Application of UV/Vis Spectroscopy in Forensics 1608.4.3 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 1628.4.3.1 Application of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy in Forensics 1638.4.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 1658.4.4.1 Application of Infrared Spectroscopy in Forensics 1668.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 1678.4.5.1 Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Forensics 1688.4.6 Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy 1718.4.6.1 Application of Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 1728.4.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1738.4.7.1 Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Forensics 1748.4.8 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 1768.4.8.1 Application of Atomic Emission Spectroscopy in Forensics 1778.4.9 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1788.4.9.1 Application of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1798.4.10 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1818.4.10.1 Application of Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1828.4.11 Phosphorescence Spectroscopy 1838.4.11.1 Application of Phosphorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1848.4.12 Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy 1868.4.12.1 Application of Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1878.4.13 Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy 1888.4.13.1 Application of Chemiluminescence Spectroscopy in Forensics 1898.5 Conclusion 190References 1909 Emerging Analytical Techniques in Forensic Samples 199Disha Bhatnagar and Piyush K. Rao9.1 Introduction 1999.2 Separation Techniques 2009.2.1 Chromatography 2009.2.1.1 Gas Chromatography 2029.2.2 Liquid Chromatography 2089.2.3 Capillary Electrophoresis 2119.3 Mass Spectrometry 2139.4 Tandem Mass (MS/MS) 2199.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 2209.6 Laser Ablation–Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 2219.7 Conclusion 222References 22310 DNA Sequencing and Rapid DNA Tests 225Archana Singh and Deepak Rawtani10.1 Introduction 22610.1.1 DNA Sequencing 22610.1.2 DNA Profiling Analysis Methods 22810.1.3 The Rapid DNA Test 22810.2 DNA – The Hereditary Material 23010.2.1 DNA – Structure and Genetic Information 23010.3 DNA Sequencing 23110.3.1 Maxam and Gilbert Method 23210.3.2 Chain Termination Method or Sanger’s Sequencing 23310.3.3 Automated Method 23510.3.4 Semiautomated Method 23510.3.5 Pyrosequencing Method 23610.3.6 Clone by Clone Sequencing Method 23710.3.7 The Whole-Genome Shotgun Sequencing Method 23710.3.8 Next-Generation DNA Sequencing 23810.4 Laboratory Processing and DNA Evidence Analysis 23810.4.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 23910.4.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 23910.4.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STR) 24110.4.4 Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) 24110.4.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (aflp) 24210.4.6 Y-Chromosome 24210.5 Rapid DNA Test 24310.5.1 The Evolution of the Rapid DNA Test 24410.5.2 Rapid DNA Instrument 24510.5.3 Methodology of Rapid DNA 25010.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 250References 25111 Sensor-Based Devices for Trace Evidence 265Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani11.1 Introduction 26611.2 Immunosensors in Forensic Science 26711.2.1 Direct Immunosensing Strategies 26811.2.1.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance 26811.2.1.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 27411.2.1.3 Piezoelectric Immunosensors 27511.2.2 Indirect Immunosensing Strategies 27611.2.2.1 Optical Immunosensors 27611.2.2.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 28011.3 Genosensors and Cell-Based Biosensors in Forensic Science 28211.4 Aptasensors in Forensic Science 28311.4.1 Forensic Applications of Aptasensors 28711.5 Enzymatic Biosensors in Forensic Science 28811.5.1 Applications of Enzymatic Biosensors for Trace Evidence Analysis 28911.6 Conclusion 289References 29012 Biomimetic Devices for Trace Evidence Detection 299Manika and Astha Pandey12.1 Introduction 30012.2 Tools or Machines for Biomimetics 30112.3 Methods of Biomimetics 30212.4 Applications 30212.4.1 Detection of Trace Evidences 30212.4.1.1 Biomimetic Sniffing 30212.4.1.2 L-Nicotine Detection 30712.4.1.3 TNT Detection 30712.4.2 Hybrid Materials to Medical Devices 30912.4.2.1 Smart Drug Delivery Micro and Nanodevices 30912.4.2.2 Nanodevices for Combination of Therapy and Theranostics 31012.4.2.3 Continuous Biosensors for Glucose 31012.4.2.4 Electro-Active Lenses 31112.4.2.5 Smart Tattoos 31112.5 Challenges for Biomimetics in Practice 31112.6 Conclusion 312References 31413 Forensic Photography 315Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani13.1 Introduction 31613.2 Forensic Photography and Its Purpose 31613.3 Modern Principles of Forensic Photography 31813.4 Fundamental Rules of Forensic Photography 31913.4.1 Rule Number 1. Filling the Frame Space 31913.4.2 Rule Number 2. Expansion of Depth of Field 32013.4.3 Rule Number 3. Positioning the Film Plane 32113.5 Camera Setup and Apparatus for Forensic Photography 32113.6 The Dynamics of a Digital Camera 32213.6.1 Types of Digital Cameras 32313.6.2 Sensor Architecture 32413.6.2.1 Full Frame 32413.6.2.2 Frame Transfer 32513.6.2.3 Interline Architecture 32513.6.3 Spectral Response 32513.6.4 Light Sensitivity and Noise Cancellation 32613.6.5 Dynamic Range 32613.6.6 Blooming and Anti-Blooming 32613.6.7 Signal to Noise Ratio 32613.6.8 Spatial Resolution 32713.6.9 Frame Rate 32713.7 Common Crime Scenarios and How They Must be Photographed 32713.7.1 Photography of Road Traffic Accidents 32813.7.2 Photography of Homicides 32913.7.3 Arson Crime Scenes 33013.7.4 Photography of Print Impressions at a Crime Scene 33013.7.5 Tire Marks and Their Photography 33113.7.6 Photography of Skin Wounds 33113.8 Conclusion 332References 33214 Scanners and Microscopes 335Aayush Dey, Piyush K. Rao and Deepak Rawtani14.1 Introduction 33614.2 Scanners in Forensic Science 33714.2.1 Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.1 Benefits of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.2 Drawbacks of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanners 33814.2.1.3 Applications in Forensic Science 33914.2.2 Structured Light Scanners 34114.2.2.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34114.2.3 Intraoral Optical Scanners 34214.2.3.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34214.2.4 Computerized Tomography Scanner 34314.2.4.1 Applications in Forensic Science 34314.3 Microscopes in Forensic Science 34414.3.1 Light Microscopes 34514.3.1.1 Compound Microscope 34514.3.1.2 Comparison Microscope 34714.3.1.3 Polarizing Microscope 34814.3.1.4 Stereoscopic Microscope 34814.3.2 Electron Microscopes 34914.3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 34914.3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 35014.3.3 Probing Microscopes 35014.3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscope 35014.4 Conclusion 355References 35615 Recent Advances in Forensic Tools 361Tatenda Justice Gunda, Charles Muchabaiwa, Piyush K. Rao, Aayush Dey and Deepak Rawtani15.1 Introduction 36215.1.1 Recent Forensic Tool: Trends in Crime Investigations 36315.1.2 Recent Forensic Device 36415.2 Classification of Forensic Tools and Devices 36415.2.1 Forensic Chemistry 36515.2.1.1 Sensors 36515.2.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques 36815.2.1.3 Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) 36915.2.1.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 37015.2.1.5 Liquid Chromatography (LC/MS/MS) Rapid Toxicology Screening System 37015.2.1.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 37215.2.1.7 Drug Testing Toxicology of Hair 37215.2.2 Question Document and Fingerprinting 37315.2.2.1 Electrostatic Detection Analysis (esda) 37415.2.2.2 Video Spectral Comparator 37515.2.2.3 Fingerprinting 37615.2.3 Forensic Physics 37715.2.3.1 Facial Recognition 37715.2.3.2 3D Facial Reconstruction 37815.2.3.3 Arsenal Automated Ballistic Identification System (ABIS) 37815.2.3.4 Audio Video Aided Forensic Analysis 37915.2.3.5 Brain Electrical Oscillations Signature (beos) 37915.2.3.6 Phenom Desktop Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 37915.2.3.7 X-Ray Spectroscopy EDX 38015.2.3.8 Drones/UAVs 38015.2.4 Forensic Biology 38215.2.4.1 Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) 38415.2.4.2 Virtopsy 38415.2.4.3 Three-Dimensional Imaging System 38515.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 385References 38616 Future Aspects of Modern Forensic Tools and Devices 393Swathi Satish, Gargi Phadke and Deepak Rawtani16.1 Introduction 39416.2 Forensic Tools 39516.2.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Tools 39616.2.2 Future Facets of Forensic Tools 39716.2.2.1 Analytical Forensic Tools 39716.2.2.2 Digital Forensic Tools 39916.3 Forensic Devices 40316.3.1 Emerging Trends in Forensic Devices 40316.3.2 Future Aspects of Forensic Devices 40416.4 Conclusion 409References 410Index 415