Understanding Multilingualism

JOHN W. SCHWIETER is Professor at Wilfrid Laurier University and Adjunct Professor at McMaster University, Canada. ALINE FERREIRA is Associate Professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, USA. LI WEI is Director and Dean of the UCL Institute of Education and Professor at University College London, UK.

“The path towards a full public and societal acceptance of multilingualism as an inevitable and permanent human characteristic, must begin with understanding. This impressive volume represents an important step towards that goal and a very welcome resource for teachers, researchers, policymakers, and the wider community.”— Joseph Lo Bianco, Professor Emeritus, Language and Literacy, University of Melbourne, Australia“This book is a crucial resource for researchers investigating the impact of multiple languages on individuals and societies. The breadth of topics covered is remarkable, encompassing the cognitive dimensions of multilingualism, its societal implications, its role in education and policy, and the effects of digital technology and media. The detailed discussion of diverse methodologies in multilingual studies is especially valuable, offering readers insights into the intricate research processes underlying the field’s advancements.”—Maria Polinsky, University of Maryland, College Park, United States

• About the Authors xPreface xiAcknowledgments xiii1 Defining Multilingualism 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Evolutionary Roots of Language 31.3 Theoretical Perspectives of Multilingualism 51.3.1 Linguistic Perspectives 51.3.2 Sociolinguistic Perspectives 61.3.3 Cognitive Perspectives 61.4 Various Forms of Multilingualism 81.4.1 Individual Multilingualism 81.4.2 Societal Multilingualism 81.4.3 Transnational Multilingualism 9Summary 10Further Reading 10Study Questions 11References 112 Learning More than One Language 132.1 Introduction 132.2 Similarities and Differences Between L1 and L2 Acquisition 142.3 Linguistic Development of Multiple Languages 152.3.1 Acquisition of L2 Phonology 152.3.2 Acquisition of L2 Morphology 172.3.3 Acquisition of L2 Syntax 172.3.4 Acquisition of L2 Communicative and Pragmatic Competences 202.4 Factors Affecting L2 Acquisition 222.4.1 Learning Style 222.4.2 Cross- Linguistic Influences 222.4.3 Age 242.4.4 Language Aptitude 242.4.5 Working Memory Capacity 252.4.6 Gender 252.4.7 Affective Factors 252.4.8 Learning Environment 262.5 Classroom Pedagogies Used by L2 Educators 272.5.1 Early Approaches to L2 Teaching and Learning 272.5.2 Communicative Approaches to L2 Teaching 282.5.3 Sociocultural Approaches to L2 Teaching 292.5.4 Processing Instruction 302.5.5 Immersion Programs 312.5.6 Technology- Enhanced L2 Teaching 31Summary 32Further Reading 33Study Questions 33References 343 Psycholinguistic Models of Multilingualism 383.1 Introduction 383.2 Speech Production Models 393.2.1 Foundations from Monolingual Speech Production 393.2.1.1 Dell’s (1986) Spreading Activation Model 403.2.1.2 Levelt’s (1989) Modular Speaking Model 413.2.2 Developments in Multilingualism 423.2.2.1 Kormos’ (2006) Bilingual Speech Production Model 423.3 Comprehension Models 443.3.1 Foundations from Monolingual Comprehension 443.3.1.1 Interactive Activation Model 443.3.1.2 The TRACE Model 453.3.2 Developments in Multilingualism 463.3.2.1 Bilingual Interactive Activation Model 463.3.2.2 Bilingual Model of Lexical Access 473.4 Multilingual Models of Lexical and Conceptual Memory 483.4.1 Revised Hierarchical Model 493.4.2 Modified Hierarchical Model 503.5 Multilingual Models of Language Control 503.5.1 Inhibitory Control Model 513.5.2 Adaptive Control Hypothesis 523.5.3 Cognitive Effects of Language Switching 53Summary 54Further Reading 55Study Questions 55References 554 The Multilingual Brain 584.1 Introduction 584.2 Where Are Languages Located in the Brain? 594.3 Multilingualism and Changes to the Brain 604.3.1 Neuroplasticity 604.3.2 Structural Changes to the Brain 614.3.3 Neural Remodeling 624.4 What Happens to Languages After Brain Trauma? 634.4.1 How Does Damage to Brain Areas Affect Languages? 634.4.2 What Premorbid Factors Influence Aphasia in Multilinguals? 634.5 Clinical Assessment and Treatment of Aphasia Among Multilinguals 664.5.1 How Is Aphasia Diagnosed in Multilingual Patients? 664.5.2 Language Rehabilitation in Multilingual Aphasics 674.6 Clinical Recovery Patterns of Languages in Multilingual Patients 70Summary 71Further Reading 72Study Questions 72References 725 Cognitive Effects of Multilingualism 775.1 Introduction 775.2 Cognitive Processes of Multilingualism: A Look at Inhibitory Control in Language Switching 785.3 Multilingualism in Children, Adults, and Older Adults 805.3.1 Multilingual Children 805.3.2 Multilingual Adults 805.3.3 Multilingual Older Adults 815.4 Cognitive Effects of Multilingualism Across the Lifespan 825.4.1 Children 825.4.2 Adults 835.4.3 Older Adults 85Summary 86Further Reading 87Study Questions 87References 876 Multilingualism Across the Lifespan 916.1 Introduction 916.2 Early Research and Views on Multilingualism 926.3 Multilingual Children 946.4 Multilingual Adolescents 976.5 Multilingual Middle and Older Adults 98Summary 100Further Reading 100Study Questions 100References 1017 Language Attrition and Maintenance 1047.1 Introduction 1047.2 Language Attrition 1057.3 Language Attrition Across Linguistic Domains 1077.3.1 Sound 1077.3.2 Vocabulary 1087.3.3 Grammar 1097.4 Language Maintenance and Revitalization 110Summary 114Further Reading 114Study Questions 114References 1158 Multilingual Communities and Families in Society 1178.1 Introduction 1178.2 Societal Multilingualism 1188.3 Multilingual Communities 1218.4 Multilingual Families 1258.4.1 New Family Structures and Relations: Cross- Linguistic Adoption 1308.5 Tensions Between Societal Policy and Everyday Lived Experiences of Multilinguals 131Summary 132Further Reading 132Study Questions 132References 1339 Multilingualism in Education 1349.1 Introduction 1349.2 Types of Multilingual Education Programs 1359.3 Medium of Instruction Policies and Multilingual Pedagogies 1389.4 Multilingual Classroom Interaction 1419.5 Multilingual Assessment 1449.6 Multilingual Education and Social Justice 145Summary 147Further Reading 147Study Questions 147References 14810 Digital Technology, Media, and Multilingualism 14910.1 Introduction 14910.2 Digital Transformation of Multilingualism: In What Way Has the World Become More Multilingual? 15010.3 Multilingual Internet 15310.4 Social Media and Multilingual Interaction 15610.5 AI, Future Technologies, and Multilingual Futures 163Summary 164Further Reading 165Study Questions 165References 16511 Beyond Multilingualism: Rethinking Practice, Policy, and Theory from a Translingual Perspective 16611.1 Introduction 16611.2 From Multi- to Trans- Lingual: More than a Terminological Shift 16711.3 Examples of Post- Multilingualism 16911.3.1 Trans- Scripting/Tranßcripting 16911.3.2 Kongish 17011.4 The Nature of Languages from a Translanguaging Perspective 17311.5 Implications for Education Policy and Practice 176Summary 178Further Reading 179Study Questions 179References 17912 Designing and Conducting Research in Multilingualism 18112.1 Introduction 18112.1.1 Defining Research Questions 18212.1.2 Choosing a Research Design 18312.1.3 Collecting Data 18312.1.4 Analyzing Findings 18312.1.5 Ethical Considerations 18412.2 Methods Examining Multilingual Development in Classroom Settings 18412.2.1 Observational Research 18412.2.2 Quasi- Experimental Research 18612.2.3 Longitudinal vs. Cross- Sectional Research 18612.2.4 Action Research 18812.2.5 Introspective Research 18812.3 Methods Examining Individual Differences 18912.4 Methods Examining Corpora of Multilingual Use 19012.5 Methods Examining Language Processing and the Brain 19112.5.1 Eyetracking 19112.5.2 Electroencephalography 19212.5.3 Brain Imaging 19412.6 Methods of Sociolinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism 19812.6.1 Ethnographies 19812.6.2 Case Studies 19912.6.3 Interviews: Natural and Controlled Language Elicitation 19912.7 Methods of Pragmatics Aspects of Multilingualism 200Summary 203Further Reading 203Study Questions 204References 204Glossary 206Index 223