Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

• Foreword xvList of Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxiiEditors xxiiiSection I Introduction to Fat Mimetics 11.1 Why Does the Food Industry Need Fat Mimetics? 3Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro1.1.1 The Role of Lipids in Foods and Human Nutrition 31.1.2 Current Status of Fats in the Food Industry 41.1.3 Food Trends and Fat Mimetics 51.2 Overview of the Structure-Property Relationship in Fat Mimetics 7Reed A. Nicholson and Alejandro G. Marangoni1.2.1 Introduction 71.2.2 Rheological Properties 81.2.3 Large Deformation Testing 101.2.4 Microstructure 111.2.5 Oil Binding Capacity 141.2.6 Conclusions and Next Steps 16Section II Materials and Methods Used for the Production of Fat Mimetics 212.1 Natural Wax-Based Oleogels for Food Application 23Bikash K. Pradhan, Satish Saigiri, Deepti Bharti, Doman Kim, and Kunal Pal2.1.1 Introduction 232.1.2 Mechanism of Oleogelation 242.1.3 Bibliography Meta-Analysis 252.1.4 Natural Waxes 262.1.5 Applications of the Natural Wax-Based Oleogels 292.1.6 Conclusion 342.2 Phytosterols and Other Sterols 38Artur J. Martins2.2.1 Introduction 382.2.2 γ-Oryzanol-Sterols System 402.2.3 Other Combinations Including Sterols 502.2.4 Perspective on the Industrial Applicability 502.2.5 Conclusion 522.3 Lecithin 57Thaís Jordânia Silva, Paula Kiyomi Okuro, Mayanny Gomes da Silva, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro, and Rosiane Lopes da Cunha2.3.1 Introduction 572.3.2 Lecithin Chemistry 582.3.3 Exploring Techno-Functionalities of Lecithin 662.3.4 Application of Lecithin in Alternative Oil-Structuring Routes 682.3.5 Beyond Oil-Structuring Purposes: Role of Lecithin as an Emulsifier and in the Vehiculation of Bioactive Components 732.3.6 Food Applications 742.3.7 Final Remarks and Perspectives 782.4 Mono- and Diglycerides 88Sofia Melchior, Stella Plazzotta, Sonia Calligaris, and Lara Manzocco2.4.1 Introduction 882.4.2 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 882.4.3 Fat Mimetics Based on Mono- and Diglycerides 892.4.4 Food Applications 1022.4.5 Novel Functionalities of MG and DG Fat Mimetics 1042.4.6 Conclusions 1052.5 Oleogels Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols: Toward Oil Foams 112Anne-Laure Fameau and Alejandro G. Marangoni2.5.1 Introduction 1122.5.2 Structure and Properties of Oleogel Based on Fatty Acids or Fatty Alcohols 1132.5.3 Mixture of Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohol to Improve Oleogel Properties 1172.5.4 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols 1222.5.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 1282.6 Proteins as Fat Replacers in the Food Industry 133Davanam Srikanth, Dharani Gopi, Sunil, C. K., Karunairaj Michael, and Ashish Rawson2.6.1 Introduction 1332.6.2 Fat Mimetics 1352.6.3 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1372.6.4 Properties of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1442.6.5 Factors Affecting the Acceptability of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1452.6.6 Applications of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1472.6.7 Future of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1502.7 Polysaccharide-Based Oleogels 155Andrew J. Gravelle2.7.1 Introduction 1552.7.2 Direct Polymeric Structuring 1562.7.3 Indirect Structuring 1712.7.4 Conclusion 183Section III Methodologies for the Characterisation of Fat Mimetics 1933.1 Rheology and Texture Analysis 195Luiz Henrique Fasolin, Carolina Siqueira Franco Picone, Gabrielli Nunes Clímaco, and Felipe de Andrade Maia3.1.1 Introduction 1953.1.2 Rheology Principles 1953.1.3 Texture Principles 2053.2 Application of Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering and Small-Angle Neutron Scattering to Fat Mimetics 214Elliot Paul Gilbert3.2.1 Introduction 2143.2.2 Fundamentals of Small-Angle Scattering 2163.2.3 Recent Experimental SAS and USAS Examples to Oleogels 2263.2.4 Conclusions and Outlook 2393.3 Sensory Evaluation of Fat Reduction in Foods 245Patricia Severiano-Pérez, Aurora Pintor-Jardines, Mariel Calderón-Oliver, and Hector Escalona-Buendía3.3.1 Introduction 2453.3.2 Generalities on Fat Replacement and Sensory Evaluation 2463.3.3 Effect of Fat Replacement in Food Products 2473.3.4 Conclusion and Final Considerations 2593.4 Gastrointestinal Fate of Lipid-Based Formulations as Fat Mimetics 265Maria A. Azevedo and Catarina Gonçalves3.4.1 Introduction 2653.4.2 Lipid Digestion 2663.4.3 Conclusion 2733.5 Nutritional and Functional Properties of Fat Mimetics 277Xiao-Wei Chen and Xiao-Quan Yang3.5.1 Introduction 2773.5.2 Emerging Fat Mimetics 2783.5.3 Multifunctionality of Fat Mimetics in Food Applications 2943.5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 302Section IV Food Applications 3134.1 Processed Meat Products 315Yogesh Kumar, Akhoon Asrar Bashir, and Poonam Choudhary4.1.1 Introduction 3154.1.2 Definition and Classification 3164.1.3 Type of Fat Mimetics 3174.1.4 Conclusion 3324.2 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 343Ainaz Alizadeh and Mitra Soofi4.2.1 Introduction 3434.2.2 The Characteristics of Milk Fat 3444.2.3 The Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products 3454.2.4 Issues with Low-Fat Dairy Products 3464.2.5 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 3464.2.6 Applications of Fat Mimetics in Different Dairy Products 3524.2.7 Conclusion 3614.3 Margarine and Fat Spreads 366Filip Van Bockstaele, Ivana A. Penagos, Kato Rondou, and Koen Dewettinck4.3.1 Introduction 3664.3.2 Alternative Structuring Approaches for Margarines and Fat Spreads 3724.3.3 Conclusion 3864.4 Baked Products 392Ilkem Demirkesen, Suyong Lee and Behic Mert4.4.1 Introduction 3924.4.2 Fat Mimetics in Bakery Products 3934.4.3 Conclusion 414Section V Industrial Perspective 4195. 1 Molecular Gels–Barriers, Advances, and Opportunities 421Michael A. Rogers5.1.1 Introduction 4215.1.2 Reliance Serendipitous Discovery 4215.1.3 Solvent Confluence on Gelation Outcome 4225.1.4 Emerging Low Molecular Mass Organogelating Technologies 4315.1.5 Polymeric Gelation 4375.1.6 Conclusion 4395.2 Research and Development Toward the Commercialization of Fat Mimetics 447Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Buse N. Gürbüz, and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro5.2.1 Introduction 4475.2.2 Research & Development in Fat Mimetics 4485.2.3 Patents and Commercial Products 4485.2.4 Conclusion 474Index 495

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

• Foreword xvList of Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxiiEditors xxiiiSection I Introduction to Fat Mimetics 11.1 Why Does the Food Industry Need Fat Mimetics? 3Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro1.1.1 The Role of Lipids in Foods and Human Nutrition 31.1.2 Current Status of Fats in the Food Industry 41.1.3 Food Trends and Fat Mimetics 51.2 Overview of the Structure-Property Relationship in Fat Mimetics 7Reed A. Nicholson and Alejandro G. Marangoni1.2.1 Introduction 71.2.2 Rheological Properties 81.2.3 Large Deformation Testing 101.2.4 Microstructure 111.2.5 Oil Binding Capacity 141.2.6 Conclusions and Next Steps 16Section II Materials and Methods Used for the Production of Fat Mimetics 212.1 Natural Wax-Based Oleogels for Food Application 23Bikash K. Pradhan, Satish Saigiri, Deepti Bharti, Doman Kim, and Kunal Pal2.1.1 Introduction 232.1.2 Mechanism of Oleogelation 242.1.3 Bibliography Meta-Analysis 252.1.4 Natural Waxes 262.1.5 Applications of the Natural Wax-Based Oleogels 292.1.6 Conclusion 342.2 Phytosterols and Other Sterols 38Artur J. Martins2.2.1 Introduction 382.2.2 γ-Oryzanol-Sterols System 402.2.3 Other Combinations Including Sterols 502.2.4 Perspective on the Industrial Applicability 502.2.5 Conclusion 522.3 Lecithin 57Thaís Jordânia Silva, Paula Kiyomi Okuro, Mayanny Gomes da Silva, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro, and Rosiane Lopes da Cunha2.3.1 Introduction 572.3.2 Lecithin Chemistry 582.3.3 Exploring Techno-Functionalities of Lecithin 662.3.4 Application of Lecithin in Alternative Oil-Structuring Routes 682.3.5 Beyond Oil-Structuring Purposes: Role of Lecithin as an Emulsifier and in the Vehiculation of Bioactive Components 732.3.6 Food Applications 742.3.7 Final Remarks and Perspectives 782.4 Mono- and Diglycerides 88Sofia Melchior, Stella Plazzotta, Sonia Calligaris, and Lara Manzocco2.4.1 Introduction 882.4.2 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 882.4.3 Fat Mimetics Based on Mono- and Diglycerides 892.4.4 Food Applications 1022.4.5 Novel Functionalities of MG and DG Fat Mimetics 1042.4.6 Conclusions 1052.5 Oleogels Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols: Toward Oil Foams 112Anne-Laure Fameau and Alejandro G. Marangoni2.5.1 Introduction 1122.5.2 Structure and Properties of Oleogel Based on Fatty Acids or Fatty Alcohols 1132.5.3 Mixture of Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohol to Improve Oleogel Properties 1172.5.4 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols 1222.5.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 1282.6 Proteins as Fat Replacers in the Food Industry 133Davanam Srikanth, Dharani Gopi, Sunil, C. K., Karunairaj Michael, and Ashish Rawson2.6.1 Introduction 1332.6.2 Fat Mimetics 1352.6.3 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1372.6.4 Properties of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1442.6.5 Factors Affecting the Acceptability of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1452.6.6 Applications of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1472.6.7 Future of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1502.7 Polysaccharide-Based Oleogels 155Andrew J. Gravelle2.7.1 Introduction 1552.7.2 Direct Polymeric Structuring 1562.7.3 Indirect Structuring 1712.7.4 Conclusion 183Section III Methodologies for the Characterisation of Fat Mimetics 1933.1 Rheology and Texture Analysis 195Luiz Henrique Fasolin, Carolina Siqueira Franco Picone, Gabrielli Nunes Clímaco, and Felipe de Andrade Maia3.1.1 Introduction 1953.1.2 Rheology Principles 1953.1.3 Texture Principles 2053.2 Application of Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering and Small-Angle Neutron Scattering to Fat Mimetics 214Elliot Paul Gilbert3.2.1 Introduction 2143.2.2 Fundamentals of Small-Angle Scattering 2163.2.3 Recent Experimental SAS and USAS Examples to Oleogels 2263.2.4 Conclusions and Outlook 2393.3 Sensory Evaluation of Fat Reduction in Foods 245Patricia Severiano-Pérez, Aurora Pintor-Jardines, Mariel Calderón-Oliver, and Hector Escalona-Buendía3.3.1 Introduction 2453.3.2 Generalities on Fat Replacement and Sensory Evaluation 2463.3.3 Effect of Fat Replacement in Food Products 2473.3.4 Conclusion and Final Considerations 2593.4 Gastrointestinal Fate of Lipid-Based Formulations as Fat Mimetics 265Maria A. Azevedo and Catarina Gonçalves3.4.1 Introduction 2653.4.2 Lipid Digestion 2663.4.3 Conclusion 2733.5 Nutritional and Functional Properties of Fat Mimetics 277Xiao-Wei Chen and Xiao-Quan Yang3.5.1 Introduction 2773.5.2 Emerging Fat Mimetics 2783.5.3 Multifunctionality of Fat Mimetics in Food Applications 2943.5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 302Section IV Food Applications 3134.1 Processed Meat Products 315Yogesh Kumar, Akhoon Asrar Bashir, and Poonam Choudhary4.1.1 Introduction 3154.1.2 Definition and Classification 3164.1.3 Type of Fat Mimetics 3174.1.4 Conclusion 3324.2 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 343Ainaz Alizadeh and Mitra Soofi4.2.1 Introduction 3434.2.2 The Characteristics of Milk Fat 3444.2.3 The Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products 3454.2.4 Issues with Low-Fat Dairy Products 3464.2.5 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 3464.2.6 Applications of Fat Mimetics in Different Dairy Products 3524.2.7 Conclusion 3614.3 Margarine and Fat Spreads 366Filip Van Bockstaele, Ivana A. Penagos, Kato Rondou, and Koen Dewettinck4.3.1 Introduction 3664.3.2 Alternative Structuring Approaches for Margarines and Fat Spreads 3724.3.3 Conclusion 3864.4 Baked Products 392Ilkem Demirkesen, Suyong Lee and Behic Mert4.4.1 Introduction 3924.4.2 Fat Mimetics in Bakery Products 3934.4.3 Conclusion 414Section V Industrial Perspective 4195. 1 Molecular Gels–Barriers, Advances, and Opportunities 421Michael A. Rogers5.1.1 Introduction 4215.1.2 Reliance Serendipitous Discovery 4215.1.3 Solvent Confluence on Gelation Outcome 4225.1.4 Emerging Low Molecular Mass Organogelating Technologies 4315.1.5 Polymeric Gelation 4375.1.6 Conclusion 4395.2 Research and Development Toward the Commercialization of Fat Mimetics 447Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Buse N. Gürbüz, and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro5.2.1 Introduction 4475.2.2 Research & Development in Fat Mimetics 4485.2.3 Patents and Commercial Products 4485.2.4 Conclusion 474Index 495

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

• Foreword xvList of Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxiiEditors xxiiiSection I Introduction to Fat Mimetics 11.1 Why Does the Food Industry Need Fat Mimetics? 3Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro1.1.1 The Role of Lipids in Foods and Human Nutrition 31.1.2 Current Status of Fats in the Food Industry 41.1.3 Food Trends and Fat Mimetics 51.2 Overview of the Structure-Property Relationship in Fat Mimetics 7Reed A. Nicholson and Alejandro G. Marangoni1.2.1 Introduction 71.2.2 Rheological Properties 81.2.3 Large Deformation Testing 101.2.4 Microstructure 111.2.5 Oil Binding Capacity 141.2.6 Conclusions and Next Steps 16Section II Materials and Methods Used for the Production of Fat Mimetics 212.1 Natural Wax-Based Oleogels for Food Application 23Bikash K. Pradhan, Satish Saigiri, Deepti Bharti, Doman Kim, and Kunal Pal2.1.1 Introduction 232.1.2 Mechanism of Oleogelation 242.1.3 Bibliography Meta-Analysis 252.1.4 Natural Waxes 262.1.5 Applications of the Natural Wax-Based Oleogels 292.1.6 Conclusion 342.2 Phytosterols and Other Sterols 38Artur J. Martins2.2.1 Introduction 382.2.2 γ-Oryzanol-Sterols System 402.2.3 Other Combinations Including Sterols 502.2.4 Perspective on the Industrial Applicability 502.2.5 Conclusion 522.3 Lecithin 57Thaís Jordânia Silva, Paula Kiyomi Okuro, Mayanny Gomes da Silva, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro, and Rosiane Lopes da Cunha2.3.1 Introduction 572.3.2 Lecithin Chemistry 582.3.3 Exploring Techno-Functionalities of Lecithin 662.3.4 Application of Lecithin in Alternative Oil-Structuring Routes 682.3.5 Beyond Oil-Structuring Purposes: Role of Lecithin as an Emulsifier and in the Vehiculation of Bioactive Components 732.3.6 Food Applications 742.3.7 Final Remarks and Perspectives 782.4 Mono- and Diglycerides 88Sofia Melchior, Stella Plazzotta, Sonia Calligaris, and Lara Manzocco2.4.1 Introduction 882.4.2 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 882.4.3 Fat Mimetics Based on Mono- and Diglycerides 892.4.4 Food Applications 1022.4.5 Novel Functionalities of MG and DG Fat Mimetics 1042.4.6 Conclusions 1052.5 Oleogels Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols: Toward Oil Foams 112Anne-Laure Fameau and Alejandro G. Marangoni2.5.1 Introduction 1122.5.2 Structure and Properties of Oleogel Based on Fatty Acids or Fatty Alcohols 1132.5.3 Mixture of Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohol to Improve Oleogel Properties 1172.5.4 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols 1222.5.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 1282.6 Proteins as Fat Replacers in the Food Industry 133Davanam Srikanth, Dharani Gopi, Sunil, C. K., Karunairaj Michael, and Ashish Rawson2.6.1 Introduction 1332.6.2 Fat Mimetics 1352.6.3 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1372.6.4 Properties of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1442.6.5 Factors Affecting the Acceptability of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1452.6.6 Applications of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1472.6.7 Future of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1502.7 Polysaccharide-Based Oleogels 155Andrew J. Gravelle2.7.1 Introduction 1552.7.2 Direct Polymeric Structuring 1562.7.3 Indirect Structuring 1712.7.4 Conclusion 183Section III Methodologies for the Characterisation of Fat Mimetics 1933.1 Rheology and Texture Analysis 195Luiz Henrique Fasolin, Carolina Siqueira Franco Picone, Gabrielli Nunes Clímaco, and Felipe de Andrade Maia3.1.1 Introduction 1953.1.2 Rheology Principles 1953.1.3 Texture Principles 2053.2 Application of Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering and Small-Angle Neutron Scattering to Fat Mimetics 214Elliot Paul Gilbert3.2.1 Introduction 2143.2.2 Fundamentals of Small-Angle Scattering 2163.2.3 Recent Experimental SAS and USAS Examples to Oleogels 2263.2.4 Conclusions and Outlook 2393.3 Sensory Evaluation of Fat Reduction in Foods 245Patricia Severiano-Pérez, Aurora Pintor-Jardines, Mariel Calderón-Oliver, and Hector Escalona-Buendía3.3.1 Introduction 2453.3.2 Generalities on Fat Replacement and Sensory Evaluation 2463.3.3 Effect of Fat Replacement in Food Products 2473.3.4 Conclusion and Final Considerations 2593.4 Gastrointestinal Fate of Lipid-Based Formulations as Fat Mimetics 265Maria A. Azevedo and Catarina Gonçalves3.4.1 Introduction 2653.4.2 Lipid Digestion 2663.4.3 Conclusion 2733.5 Nutritional and Functional Properties of Fat Mimetics 277Xiao-Wei Chen and Xiao-Quan Yang3.5.1 Introduction 2773.5.2 Emerging Fat Mimetics 2783.5.3 Multifunctionality of Fat Mimetics in Food Applications 2943.5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 302Section IV Food Applications 3134.1 Processed Meat Products 315Yogesh Kumar, Akhoon Asrar Bashir, and Poonam Choudhary4.1.1 Introduction 3154.1.2 Definition and Classification 3164.1.3 Type of Fat Mimetics 3174.1.4 Conclusion 3324.2 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 343Ainaz Alizadeh and Mitra Soofi4.2.1 Introduction 3434.2.2 The Characteristics of Milk Fat 3444.2.3 The Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products 3454.2.4 Issues with Low-Fat Dairy Products 3464.2.5 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 3464.2.6 Applications of Fat Mimetics in Different Dairy Products 3524.2.7 Conclusion 3614.3 Margarine and Fat Spreads 366Filip Van Bockstaele, Ivana A. Penagos, Kato Rondou, and Koen Dewettinck4.3.1 Introduction 3664.3.2 Alternative Structuring Approaches for Margarines and Fat Spreads 3724.3.3 Conclusion 3864.4 Baked Products 392Ilkem Demirkesen, Suyong Lee and Behic Mert4.4.1 Introduction 3924.4.2 Fat Mimetics in Bakery Products 3934.4.3 Conclusion 414Section V Industrial Perspective 4195. 1 Molecular Gels–Barriers, Advances, and Opportunities 421Michael A. Rogers5.1.1 Introduction 4215.1.2 Reliance Serendipitous Discovery 4215.1.3 Solvent Confluence on Gelation Outcome 4225.1.4 Emerging Low Molecular Mass Organogelating Technologies 4315.1.5 Polymeric Gelation 4375.1.6 Conclusion 4395.2 Research and Development Toward the Commercialization of Fat Mimetics 447Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Buse N. Gürbüz, and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro5.2.1 Introduction 4475.2.2 Research & Development in Fat Mimetics 4485.2.3 Patents and Commercial Products 4485.2.4 Conclusion 474Index 495