Anwer Al-Dulaimi, PhD, is a Senior Manager of Emerging Technologies and Distinguished Member of Technical Staff at the 5G Center of Excellence, EXFO Inc. in Montreal, Canada. He is the chair of IEEE 5G Innovation Testbed Project, Chair of IEEE 1932.1 Standard, and IEEE Distinguished Lecturer. Octavia A. Dobre, PhD, is a Professor and Research Chair in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Memorial University, Canada. She is an IEEE Fellow and is the Inaugural Editor-in-Chief for the IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society. Chih-Lin I, PhD, established the Green Communications Research Center of China Mobile, spearheading in her role as the CMCC Chief Scientist of Wireless Technologies major initiatives including 5G Key Technologies R&D.

• About the Editors xviiAbout the Contributors xxiForeword xxxixPreface xliii1 Introduction 1Anwer Al-Dulaimi, Octavia A. Dobre, and Chih-Lin I1.1 Exploring Blockchain Technology 11.2 Developing and Testing Blockchains: Software Development Approach 41.3 Blockchains and Cloud Integration 71.4 Blockchain and Mobile Networking 91.5 Open Architecture and Blockchains 111.6 Open API and Monetization of Mobile Network Infrastructure 121.6.1 Using Blockchain Technology to Tokenize API Access 131.6.2 Monetize Mobile Network Infrastructure 131.7 Resiliency of Current Blockchain Models 141.8 Next Evolution in Blockchain Functions 151.9 Book Objectives and Organization 16References 182 Enabling Technologies and Distributed Storage 21Sina Rafati Niya and Burkhard Stiller2.1 Introduction 212.2 Data Storage 222.2.1 Distributed File Systems 232.2.2 Cloud Storage Systems 252.3 Blockchains 262.3.1 Building Elements of Blockchains 262.3.2 Mining in Blockchains 292.3.3 Blockchain-Based Data Storage 292.3.4 Blockchain Types 302.4 Distributed Storage Systems 312.4.1 DSS Layers 322.4.2 Distributed Storage Challenges 342.4.2.1 Security 342.4.2.2 Reliability 352.4.2.3 Economic Incentives 352.4.2.4 Coordination 362.4.2.5 Monetization 372.4.3 DSS Implementations 372.4.4 DSS Use Cases 412.4.4.1 SCT dApps 422.4.4.2 SCT dApp Food Chain Example 432.4.5 Performance Evaluation of DSSs 432.5 The Future of DSS 452.6 Concluding Considerations 46Acronyms 46References 473 Managing Consensus in Distributed Transaction Systems 53Hans Walter Behrens, Kasim Selçuk Candan, and Dragan Boscovic3.1 Ledgers and Consensus 533.1.1 Distributed Ledgers 533.1.2 Consensus 533.1.2.1 Consensus for Consistent Data Storage 543.1.2.2 Consensus for Transaction Ordering 563.1.2.3 Consensus as a Defense Against Bad Actors 563.1.3 Industrial Case Study 563.2 Consensus Protocols, Then and Now 573.2.1 State Machine Replication 573.2.2 Byzantine Fault Tolerance 593.2.3 Nakamoto Consensus 603.2.4 Hybrid Consensus 613.3 Cryptographic Nakamoto Proofs 623.3.1 Proof of Work 623.3.2 Proof of Stake 633.3.2.1 Chain-Based Proof of Stake 643.3.3 Proof of Capacity 643.3.4 Proof of Time 663.4 Challenges to Scalability 673.4.1 Communication Complexity 673.4.2 Asynchronous Context 683.4.3 Participant Churn 683.4.4 The Blockchain Scalability Problem 693.5 Block Size and Propagation 693.5.1 Larger Blocks 703.5.2 Shorter Rounds 713.6 Committees, Groups, and Sharding 713.6.1 Committees 713.6.2 Groups 723.6.3 Sharding 723.7 Transaction Channels 733.7.1 Trust-Weighted Agreement 743.7.2 Off-Chain Transactions 743.7.3 Lightning Network 753.8 Checkpointing and Finality Gadgets 763.8.1 Probabilistic Finality 763.8.2 Checkpointing 773.8.3 Finality Gadgets 773.9 Bootstrapping 783.9.1 Networking 783.9.2 Data 793.10 Future Trends 793.10.1 Private Consensus 793.10.2 Improved Oracles 803.10.3 Streaming Consensus 803.11 Conclusion 81References 814 Security, Privacy, and Trust of Distributed Ledgers Technology 91Saqib Rasool, Muddesar Iqbal, Shancang Li, Tasos Dagiuklas, and Saptarshi Ghosh4.1 CAP Theorem and DLT 924.1.1 Distributed Database System (DDBS) 934.1.2 Evolution of DDBS to the Blockchain 934.1.3 Public vs Permissioned Blockchains 934.1.4 Evolution of Blockchain to the DLTs 944.2 CAP Theorem 944.2.1 CAP Theorem and Consensus Algorithms 954.2.2 Availability and Partition Tolerance (AP) Through PoW 954.2.3 Consistency and Partition Tolerance (CP) Through PBFT 964.2.4 Consistency and Availability (CA) 964.3 Security and Privacy of DLT 964.3.1 Security Differs by DLT 974.3.2 Security and Requirements for Transactions 974.3.3 Security Properties of DLT 974.3.4 Challenges and Trends in DLT Security 994.4 Security in DLT 994.4.1 Governance Scenario Security 994.4.2 DLT Application Security 994.4.3 DLT Data Security 1004.4.4 Transactions Security 1004.4.5 DLT Infrastructure Security 1004.5 Privacy Issues in DLT 1004.6 Cyberattacks and Fraud 1014.6.1 Challenges 1014.6.2 Key Privacy and Security Techniques in DLT 1024.7 DLT Implementation and Blockchain 1024.7.1 Cryptocurrencies and Bitcoin 1034.7.1.1 Origin of Blockchain 1034.7.1.2 Bitcoin 1044.7.1.3 Monero 1044.7.2 Blockchain and Smart Contracts 1054.7.3 Typical Blockchain Systems 1054.7.3.1 Ethereum Classic (ETC) 1054.7.3.2 Ethereum (ETH) 1064.7.3.3 Extensibility of Blockchain and DLT 1064.7.4 Origin of Blockchain 3.0 1064.7.5 Overview of Hyperledger Fabric 1064.8 DLT of IOTA Tangle 1074.9 Trilemma of Security, Scalability, and Decentralization 1084.9.1 First-Generation Solutions: BTC/BCH 1084.9.2 Second-Generation Solutions: ETH/BSC 1084.9.3 Threats in DLT and Blockchain Networks 1094.10 Security Architecture in DLT and Blockchain 1094.10.1 Threat Model in LDT 1104.11 Research Trends and Challenges 111References 1125 Blockchains for Business – Permissioned Blockchains 117Ziliang Lai and Eric Lo5.1 Introduction 1175.2 Major Architectures of Permissioned Blockchains 1195.2.1 Order–Execute 1195.2.2 Simulate–Order–Validate 1215.2.2.1 Simulation Phase 1215.2.2.2 Ordering Phase 1225.2.2.3 Validation Phase 1225.2.3 Comparison and Analysis 1225.3 Improving Order–Execute Using Deterministic Concurrency Control 1235.3.1 Calvin 1245.3.2 Bohm 1255.3.3 Bcdb 1255.3.3.1 Simulation Phase 1265.3.3.2 Commit Phase 1265.3.4 Aria 1275.3.4.1 Simulation Phase 1275.3.4.2 Analysis Phase 1285.3.4.3 Commit Phase 1295.3.5 Comparison and Analysis 1295.4 Improving Execute–Order–Validate 1295.4.1 Transaction Reordering 1305.4.2 Early Abort 1335.4.3 FastFabric 1335.5 Scale-Out by Sharding 1345.6 Trends of Development 1365.6.1 Trusted Hardware 1365.6.2 Chainify DBMSs 137Acronyms 138References 1386 Attestation Infrastructures for Automotive Cybersecurity and Vehicular Applications of Blockchains 141Thomas Hardjono6.1 Introduction 1416.2 Cybersecurity of Automotive and IoT Systems 1426.2.1 Protecting Assets in Smart Cars 1436.2.2 Reported Cases 1456.2.3 Trusted Computing Base for Automotive Cybersecurity 1456.2.4 Special Hardware for Security 1466.2.5 Truthful Reporting: The Challenge of Attestations 1476.3 The TCB and Development of Trusted Hardware 1486.3.1 The Trusted Computing Base 1486.3.2 The Trusted Platform Module (TPM) 1496.3.3 Resource-Constrained Automotive Systems: Thin TPMs 1506.3.4 Virtualized TPMs for ECUs 1526.3.5 The DICE Model and Cyber-Resilient Systems 1536.4 Attestations in Automotive Systems 1546.4.1 A Reference Framework for Attestations 1546.4.2 Entities, Roles, and Actors 1556.4.3 Variations in Evidence Collations and Deliveries 1586.4.4 Composite Attestations for Automotive Systems 1586.4.5 Appraisal Policies 1606.5 Vehicle Wallets for Blockchain Applications 1616.5.1 Vehicular Application Scenarios 1626.5.2 Protection of Keys in Automotive Wallets 1636.5.3 Types of Evidence from Wallets 1646.6 Blockchain Technology for Future Attestation Infrastructures 1646.6.1 Challenges in the Supply-Chain of Endorsements 1656.6.2 Decentralized Infrastructures 1676.6.3 Example of Verifier Tasks 1686.6.4 Notarization Records and Location Records 1696.6.5 Desirable Properties of Blockchain-Based Approaches 1706.6.6 Information within the Notarization Record 1716.6.7 Information in the Location Record 1726.6.8 The Compliance Certifications Record 1736.7 Areas for Innovation and Future Research 1736.8 Conclusion 174Acknowledgments 175References 1757 Blockchain for Mobile Networks 185Xavier Costa-Pérez, Vincenzo Sciancalepore, Lanfranco Zanzi, and Antonio Albanese7.1 Introduction 1857.2 Next-Generation Mobile Networks: Technology Enablers and Challenges 1867.2.1 Mobile Networks: Technology Enablers 1877.2.1.1 Software-Defined Networking (SDN) 1877.2.1.2 Network Function Virtualization (NFV) 1877.2.1.3 Cloud Computing (CC) 1877.2.1.4 Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) 1887.2.1.5 5G-New Radio (5G-NR) and Millimeter Wave (mmWave) 1887.2.2 Mobile Networks: Technology Challenges 1887.2.2.1 Scalability in Massive Communication Scenarios 1887.2.2.2 Efficient Resource Sharing 1897.2.2.3 Network Slicing and Multi-tenancy 1897.2.2.4 Security 1897.3 Blockchain Applicability to Mobile Networks and Services 1907.3.1 Background and Definitions 1907.3.2 Blockchain for Radio Access Networks 1927.3.3 Blockchain for Core, Cloud, and Edge Computing 1947.3.3.1 Data Provenance 1947.3.3.2 Encrypted Data Indexing 1957.3.3.3 Mobile Network Orchestration 1957.3.3.4 Mobile Task Offloading 1967.3.3.5 Service Automation 1967.4 Blockchain for Network Slicing 1977.4.1 The Network Slice Broker (NSB) 1977.4.2 NSB Blockchain Architecture (NSBchain) 1987.4.2.1 Technical Challenges 1997.4.3 NSBchain Modeling 2017.4.3.1 System Setup 2017.4.3.2 Message Exchange 2017.4.3.3 Billing Management 2027.4.4 NSBchain Evaluation 2047.4.4.1 Experimental Setup 2047.4.4.2 Full-Scale Evaluation 2057.4.4.3 Brokering Scenario Evaluation 2077.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Work 208Acronyms 208References 2098 Blockchains for Cybersecurity and AI Systems 215Dragan Boscovic, Kasim Selçuk Candan, Petar Jevtić, Nicolas Lanchier, Sasa Pesic, and Axel La Salle8.1 Introduction 2158.2 Securing Blockchains and Traditional IT Architectures 2188.2.1 On Securing a Blockchain Platform 2198.3 Public Blockchains Cybersecurity 2218.3.1 Vulnerabilities Categorization 2228.3.1.1 Technical Limitations, Legal Liabilities, and Connected 3rd-Party Applications 2228.3.1.2 Cybersecurity Issues 2248.3.1.3 Public Blockchain 1.0: PoW and PoS 2248.3.1.4 Public Blockchain 1.0: DPoS 2278.3.1.5 Public Blockchain 2.0: Ethereum Smart Contracts 2288.3.1.6 Public Blockchain 2.0 – Privacy Issues 2308.4 Private Blockchains Cybersecurity 2318.4.1 Hyperledger Fabric Architecture 2318.4.2 HLF Vulnerabilities Categorization 2328.5 Modeling Blockchain Vulnerabilities Using Graph Theory 2348.5.1 Petri Nets 2348.5.2 Bond Percolation and Random Graphs 2358.6 Security: Blockchain for IoT 2378.6.1 IoT Security Vulnerabilities 2378.6.2 Blockchain–IoT Convergence 2388.6.2.1 Enhancing IoT Security Features 2408.7 Blockchain for Federated AI 2428.7.1 FML Basic Principles 2438.7.2 Case Study: Blockchain-Based FML in Large-Scale Environmental Sensing 245References 2479 6G Resource Management and Sharing: Blockchain and O-RAN 253Hao Xu, Paulo Valente Klaine, Oluwakayode Onireti, and Chih-Lin I9.1 Introduction 2539.2 Spectrum Management 2569.3 Benefit of Using the Blockchain 2599.3.1 Blockchain Background 2599.3.2 Impact of Consensus and Security Performance 2619.4 Application Scenarios 2649.4.1 IoT and D2D Communications 2649.4.2 Network Slicing 2669.4.3 Network Slicing Broker 2669.4.4 Integration of Blockchain to Network Slicing and Resource Brokerage 2679.4.5 Inter-Domain Blockchain Ecosystem 2719.4.6 Blockchain Introduction on Mutual Authentication, Identities, and Certifications for O-RAN 2729.4.6.1 O-RAN Common Protocol Stack Integration of PDCP 2759.4.6.2 O-RAN Interface Integration Scenario 2769.4.7 Challenges of Applying the Blockchain Technology in Resource Sharing and Spectrum Management 2769.5 Conclusions 277Acronyms 278References 27910 Blockchain for Smart Healthcare 287Dinh C. Nguyen, Pubudu N. Pathirana, Ming Ding, and Aruna Seneviratne10.1 Introduction 28710.2 Smart Healthcare Architecture with Blockchain 29010.2.1 Blockchain-Based Healthcare Architecture 29010.2.2 Blockchain Design 29210.3 Blockchain for EMRs Data Sharing in Collaborative Healthcare 29210.3.1 User Authentication with Smart Contract 29310.3.1.1 Initialization Phase 29310.3.1.2 Registration Phase 29310.3.1.3 User Authentication Phase 29410.3.2 Health Data Retrieval with Blockchain 29610.4 Blockchain Mining Design for Smart Healthcare System 29810.4.1 Miner Node Selection 30010.4.1.1 Reputation Calculation 30010.4.1.2 Miner Selection 30110.4.2 Lightweight Block Verification 30110.4.3 Latency of Block Verification 30310.5 Experimental Results 30410.5.1 Experimental Settings 30410.5.2 Evaluation of EMRs Sharing Performance 30410.5.2.1 Authentication Cost 30510.5.2.2 Data Retrieval Latency 30510.5.3 Evaluation of Blockchain Performance 30710.5.3.1 Blockchain Consensus Performance 30710.5.4 Security Analysis 30910.5.4.1 Data Privacy 30910.5.4.2 Authentication 30910.5.4.3 Traceability 31010.6 Conclusions 310Acronyms 310References 31111 Blockchain Standards 315Hui Ding, Xiaofeng Chen, Kyeong Hee Oh, Ismael Arribas, Jörn Erbguth, Alexander Chuburkov, Lisa J. Y. Tan, and Xiangjuan Jia11.1 Introduction 31511.2 The Role of Blockchain Standards 31611.2.1 A Brief Introduction to Standards 31611.2.2 Initiatives of Blockchain Standards 31811.3 Landscape of Blockchain Standards 31911.3.1 Blockchain Standards in IEEE 32111.3.2 Blockchain Standards in ITU-T 32411.3.3 Blockchain Standards in ISO 33111.3.4 Regional, National, and Industrial Blockchain Standards 33411.3.4.1 Etsi 33511.3.4.2 DIN in Germany 33511.3.4.3 UNE CTN 71/SC307 in Spain 33611.3.4.4 LACChain Alliance in Latin America and the Caribbean 33711.3.4.5 ISO, ITU Participation, and National Blockchain Standards for Financial Asset Management in Russia 33811.3.4.6 Blockchain Standards in China and Financial Sector Application 33911.3.4.7 Blockchain Standards in Communication Networks 34111.4 From Blockchain Standards to Industrial Adoption 342List of Acronyms 344References 345Index 349