Food Chemistry

Mousumi Sen, PhD is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry, Amity University, India. She received her PhD in Bioinorganic Chemistry from the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India. Her research interest is focused on the development of biotechnological processes for bioprocessing and conversion of waste to generate bioenergy, biofuels, and biobased chemicals. She has published numerous peer-reviewed research articles in international journals as well as authored, edited books, chapters and a conference proceedings volume.

• Preface xix1 Food Chemistry: Role of Additives, Preservatives, and Adulteration 1Mousumi Sen1.1 Introduction 21.2 Categories of Food Colors 21.3 Natural Colors Are Best Over Artificial Colors 31.4 Classification of Food Colorants 31.4.1 Natural Colorants 31.4.2 Synthetic Colorants 71.4.2.1 Water Soluble Synthetic Colors 71.4.2.2 Fat Soluble Synthetic Colorants 81.4.2.3 Lake Colorants 81.5 Classification of Food Additives 91.5.1 Why Food Colors Are Preferred 121.5.2 E-Numbering 131.6 Food Spoilage and Preservation 141.6.1 Causes of Spoilage 141.6.2 Principle of Food Preservation 151.7 Preservatives 151.7.1 Factors Affecting Preservative Efficiency 151.7.1.1 Interaction With Formulation Components 151.7.1.2 Properties of Preservatives 161.7.1.3 Effect of Containers 161.7.1.4 Types of Micro-Organisms 161.7.1.5 Influence of pH 161.7.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Preservation 171.7.3 Classification of Chemical Preservatives 171.7.4 Types of Chemical Preservatives 171.7.5 Natural Chemical Preservatives 181.7.6 Methods of Food Preservation 191.8 Antioxidants 201.9 Oils and Spices 211.10 Introduction to Hurdle Technology 221 Advantages of Food Additives and Preservatives 232 Disadvantages of Food Additives and Preservatives 233 Effects of Food Additives and Food Preservatives 244 Safety of Food Additives and Preservatives 251.11 Adulteration 261 History of Food Adulteration 272 Types of Food Adulteration 272.1 Intentional Adulteration 272.2 Incidental Adulteration 282.3 Metallic Adulteration 283 A Food Is Considered Adulterated if It Has the Following Factors 284 Effects of Adulterated Food on Human Health 285 Reasons for Food Adulteration 296 Methods of Food Adulteration 297 Trends of Food Adulteration in Developing Countries 301.12 Food Safety and Standards Act 301 Few Steps to Avoid Adulteration 322 Detection Methods of Adulteration 333 Technique to Check Food Adulteration 331.13 Conclusion 33References 352 Additives and Preservatives Used in Food Processing and Preservation, and Their Health Implication 43Sunita Adhikari (Nee Pramanik)Abbreviations 442.1 Introduction 442.2 Merits and Demerits of Food Additives and Preservatives 472.2.1 Merits of Food Additives and Preservatives 472.2.2 Demerits of Food Additives and Preservatives 472.3 Types of Food Additives and Preservatives 482.3.1 Preservatives 482.3.2 Nutritional Additives 512.3.3 Flavoring Agent 512.3.4 Coloring Agent 512.3.5 Texturizing Agent 532.3.6 Miscellaneous Additives 542.3.6.1 Acidity Regulator 542.3.6.2 Anti-Caking Agent 542.3.6.3 Antifoaming Agent 542.3.6.4 Flour Treatment Agents 542.3.6.5 Fat Replacers 562.3.6.6 Sweeteners 562.3.6.7 Leavening Agent 612.3.6.8 Firming Agent 622.3.6.9 Glazing Agent 622.3.6.10 Humectant 622.3.6.11 Sequestering Agent 622.3.6.12 Gelling Agent 632.3.6.13 Propellants 632.3.6.14 Foaming Agent 632.3.6.15 Seasoning 632.3.6.16 Curing Agents 642.3.6.17 Probiotics 642.3.6.18 Other Food Additives 652.3.6.19 Indirect Food Additives 652.4 Health Effect of Food Additives and Preservatives 662.5 Conclusion 70References 713 Role of Packaging in Food Processing 73Bhasha Sharma, Susmita dey Sadhu, Rajni Chopra and Meenakshi Garg3.1 Introduction 743.2 State-of-the-Art 763.3 Raw Materials Used in Food Packaging 783.3.1 Metals 793.3.2 Glass 803.3.3 Plastics 803.3.4 Paper and Cardboard 803.4 Packaging Footprints on Quality, Shelf Life, and Safety of Food 813.5 Prolegomenon on Active and Smart Packaging Systems 813.5.1 Active Packaging 823.5.2 Intelligent Packaging System 833.6 Aseptic Packaging in Food Processing 843.7 The Paradigm in Strategies for Improvement of Food Packaging 853.7.1 Bequest of Packaging Into the Cycle of Food Chain Sustainability 853.7.2 Selection of Materials With the Objective of Recyclability 863.7.3 Escalating Protective Role of Packaging 873.7.4 How Biodegradable Polymers can Mitigate the Plight of Packaging in Food Processing 883.8 Integration of Nanotechnology to Ameliorate Food Packaging 893.9 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 903.10 Deciphering the Challenges for Sustainable Food Packaging 913.11 Conclusion and the Way Forward 92Acknowledgement 92References 924 Laws Impacting Chemicals Added to Food 97Preeti Khanna, Rajni Chopra and Meenakshi Garg4.1 Introduction 984.2 Functions of Food Additives 984.2.1 Sustain or Enhance the Shelf Life and Freshness of a Product 994.2.2 Sustain or Enhance the Nutritional Quality of a Product 994.2.3 Improve the Aesthetic Appeal and Sensory Attributes of a Product 994.3 Classification of Food Additives 994.3.1 Classification Based on Functionality 994.3.1.1 Flavoring Agents 1004.3.1.2 Enzyme Preparations 1004.3.1.3 Other Additives 1004.4 Classification Based on Primary and Secondary Technological Roles—Direct and Indirect Additives 1014.5 Evaluating the Health Risk of Food Additives 1014.6 International Regulations for the Efficacy of Food Additives 1024.7 International Laws 1024.7.1 US Food and Drug Administration 1024.8 Indian Regulations—Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), Additives Regulations (Regulation 3.1) 1034.9 Safety Assessment: Redbook’s Principles of Safety Evaluation 1054.10 Levels of Concern for Direct Food Additives 1064.11 Threshold Regulation Exemption for Indirect Food Additives 1074.12 Estimated Daily Intakes 1084.13 Human Data and Clinical Studies 1094.14 GRAS Substances 1094.15 European Union Legislation 1104.16 Categorization of Food Additives 1101 Additives Can Be Used for the Following Purposes 1104.17 Safety Assessment of Food Additives 1114.18 Safety Evaluation Process and Authorization 1124.19 Use of Food Additives in Food Products 1131 Traditional Foods 1132 Restricted Provisions 1144.20 Labeling Regulations and Guidelines 1144.21 Conclusion 114References 1145 Detection of Food Adulterants in Different Foodstuff 117Aditi Negi, P Lakshmi Praba K., R Meenatchi and Akash Pare5.1 Introduction 1185.2 Types of Adulteration 1185.3 Impact of Adulteration on Health 1205.4 Approaches for Adulterant Authentication in Food Materials 1215.5 Physical Authentication Techniques 1225.6 Application of Biochemical and Analytical Methods in Adulterant Authentication 1245.6.1 Adulterant Authentication Through HPLC 1245.6.2 Adulterant Authentication Through GCMS 1275.6.3 Adulterant Authentication Through Spectroscopic Method 1275.6.4 Adulterant Authentication Through Ambient Mass Spectroscopy Techniques 1285.6.5 Adulterant Authentication Through Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Technique 1285.7 Adulterant Identification by Molecular Techniques 1365.7.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction–Based Techniques for Adulterant Identification 1375.7.2 Application of Real-Time PCR in Adulterant Authentication 1425.7.3 Isothermal Amplification Methods for Adulterant Identification 1425.7.4 Sequencing and Hybridization-Based Methods in Adulterant Identification 1475.8 Limitation in Use of Molecular-Based Methods for Adulterant Authentication 1485.9 Conclusion 152References 1526 Trends of Food Adulteration in Developing Countries and Its Remedies 165Satyam Chachan, Anand Kishore, Khushbu Kumari and Arun Sharma6.1 Introduction 1666.2 Food Fraud in Developing Countries 1666.2.1 Impact of Adulteration 1686.3 Classification of Food Adulteration 1696.3.1 Intentional Adulteration 1716.4 Common Food Adulterants 1726.5 Adulteration Remedy Strategies 1776.5.1 Government and Regulatory Agency Initiative 1776.5.2 Loopholes in Existing Method of Eliminating Adulteration 1796.5.3 Process and Product Verification 1816.5.4 Higher Levels of Transparency/Traceability in Supply Chain 1826.5.5 Use of Novel Technology 1826.5.6 Training 1836.5.7 Awareness 1836.6 Conclusion 185References 1867 Food Adulteration and Its Impacts on Our Health/Balanced Nutrition 189Suka Thangaraju, Nikitha Modupalli and Venkatachalapathy Natarajan7.1 Introduction 1907.2 Types of Adulteration 1927.2.1 Intentional Adulteration 1927.2.2 Incidental Adulteration 1937.2.3 Other Types of Adulteration 1937.2.3.1 Natural Contamination 1937.2.3.2 Metallic Contamination 1937.2.3.3 Microbial Contamination 1947.2.3.4 Adulteration in Organic Foods 1957.2.3.5 Adulteration During Irradiation of Foods 1957.2.3.6 Genetically Modified Foods 1957.3 Adulteration in Foods 1967.3.1 Global Food Environment 1977.4 Effects of Food Adulteration 2017.4.1 Health Effects 2017.4.2 Balanced Nutrition 2057.5 Measures to Mitigate Food Adulteration 2067.5.1 Producer’s or Manufacturer’s End 2067.5.2 Consumer’s End 2067.5.3 Government and Regulatory Agencies 207References 2098 Natural Food Toxins as Anti-Nutritional Factors in Plants and Their Reduction Strategies 217Naman Kaur, Aparna Agarwal, Manisha Sabharwal and Nidhi JaiswalAbbreviations 2188.1 Introduction 2188.2 Anti-Nutritional Factor 2218.2.1 Tannins 2218.2.1.1 Types 2228.2.1.2 Adverse Effects 2228.2.2 Saponins 2238.2.2.1 Saponins 2238.2.2.2 Adverse Effects 2248.2.3 Lectins and Hemagglutinin 2258.2.3.1 Adverse Effects 2268.2.4 Alkaloids 2278.2.4.1 Adverse Health Effects 2278.2.5 Oxalates 2288.2.5.1 Adverse Effects 2298.2.6 Cyanogenic Glycosides 2308.2.6.1 Adverse Effects 2318.2.7 Goitrogens 2318.2.7.1 Adverse Effects 2328.3 Methods to Reduce Levels of Anti-Nutritional Factors in Foods 2348.3.1 Soaking 2348.3.2 Fermentation 2358.3.3 Germination 2368.3.4 Milling 2378.3.5 Extrusion 2378.3.6 Heating-Autoclaving (Wet Heating) and Roasting (Dry Heating) 2388.3.7 Gamma Radiation 2398.3.8 Genomic Technology 2398.4 Conclusion 240References 2409 Feeding the Future—Challenges and Limitations 249Baishakhi De and Tridib Kumar Goswami9.1 Introduction 2509.2 Early Life Nutrition and Healthy Future 2529.2.1 Choice of Food and “Nutrition Transition” 2539.3 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing the Future Food Systems 2559.4 Sustainable Diet for the Future 2579.5 Research Trends and Green Food Technologies 2599.5.1 Green Technologies in Food Processing 2609.5.2 Nanotechnology in Food Processing and Food Safety 2629.5.3 CRISPR-Based Technologies 2629.5.4 Future Directives 2659.5.4.1 3D Food Printing and Mass Customization of Diet 2669.6 Regulations and Trade 2709.7 Conclusion 270References 27110 Alternate Food Preservation Technology 275Pratik S Gaikwad, Chayanika Sarma, Aditi Negi and Akash Pare10.1 Introduction 27610.2 Non-Thermal Preservation Technique 27710.2.1 Packaging Technology 27710.2.1.1 Challenges and Future Scope of MAP Processing 28210.2.2 Ozone (O3) Treatment 28210.2.2.1 Properties of O3 29110.2.2.2 Principle of O3 Generation 29110.2.2.3 Challenges and Future Scope of O3 Processing 29210.2.3 High Hydrostatic Pressure Treatment 29210.2.3.1 Principles of HPP Treatment 29410.2.3.2 HPP Time 29410.2.3.3 Challenges and Future Scope of HPP Treatment 29510.2.4 Ultrasound Treatment 29510.2.4.1 Principle of Ultrasound Treatment 29610.2.4.2 Challenges and Future Scope of Ultrasound Treatment 29610.2.5 Pulsed Electric Field Treatment 29610.2.5.1 Principle of PEF Treatment 29710.2.5.2 Challenges and Future Scope of PEF Treatment 29810.2.6 Cold Plasma Treatment 29810.2.6.1 Generation of CP Treatment 29810.2.6.2 Challenges and Future Scope of CP 30010.2.7 Oscillating Magnetic Field 30010.2.7.1 Challenges and Future Scope of OMF 30110.2.8 Membrane Filtration Process 30110.2.8.1 Principle of the Membrane Filtration Process 30110.2.8.2 Microfiltration 30110.2.8.3 Ultrafiltration 30210.2.8.4 Nanofiltration 30310.2.8.5 Reverse Osmosis 30310.2.8.6 Challenges and Future Scope of the Membrane Filtration Process 30310.3 Novel-Thermal Preservation Technique 30310.3.1 Ohmic Heating Treatment 30310.3.1.1 Application of OH Treatment 30410.3.1.2 Challenges and Future Scope of OH Treatment 31110.3.2 Microwave Heating 31110.3.2.1 Principle of MW Heating 31110.3.2.2 Applications of MW Heating 31210.3.2.3 Challenges and Future Scope of MW Heating 31210.3.3 Infrared Heating (IRH) 31210.3.3.1 Application of IRH 31310.3.3.2 Challenges and Future Scope of IRH 31310.3.4 Radio Frequency Heating 31310.3.4.1 Principle of RF Heating 31410.3.4.2 Factor Influencing of RF Heating 31410.3.4.3 Challenges and Future Scope of RF Heating 31410.4 Other Alternate Preservation Techniques 31510.4.1 Freezing 31510.4.1.1 Challenges and Future Scope of Freezing 31610.4.2 Dehydration 31610.4.3 Frying 31710.4.4 Chilling 31810.4.5 Extrusion 31810.4.6 Three-Dimensional (3-D) Printing 31910.4.6.1 Principle of 3-D Printing 31910.4.6.2 Factor Influencing 3-D Printing 31910.4.7 Blanching 32010.5 Hurdle Technology for Preservation of Food 32010.6 Irradiation Process for Preservation of Food 32110.6.1 Electron Beam 32710.6.2 X-Radiation (X-Ray) 32710.6.3 Gamma Rays 32710.7 Food Additives for the Preservation of Food 32810.7.1 Natural Additives 32810.7.2 Synthetic Additives 32810.7.3 Challenges and Future Scope of Additives 33110.8 Conclusion 332References 33211 Green Solvents for Food Processing Applications 341A Surendra Babu, A Sangeetha and R Jaganmohan11.1 Introduction 34211.2 Green Solvents 34411.2.1 Water as Green Solvent 34511.2.2 Subcritical Water Extraction 34611.2.3 Supercritical Fluids as Green Solvent 34611.2.4 Gas Expanded Liquids as Green Solvent 34711.2.5 Ionic Liquids as Green Solvent 34811.2.5.1 Classification of Ionic Liquids 34811.2.6 Solvents Derived From Biomass as Green Solvent 34911.2.7 Deep Eutectic Solvents as Green Solvents 35211.3 Synthesis of NADES 35311.3.1 NADES for Extraction of Phenolic Compounds 35511.3.2 NADES for Extraction of Flavonoids 36011.3.3 NADES for Extraction of Other Polar Compounds 36411.3.3.1 Ferulic Acid Extraction From Ligusticum Chuanxiong Hort and NADES 36411.3.4 NADES for Extraction of Food Samples 36411.3.4.1 Extraction of Vanillin With NADES 36411.3.4.2 Extraction of Anthocyanins With NADES 36411.3.4.3 Extraction of Phenolic Compounds With NADES 36411.3.5 General Considerations Using NADES as Extraction Solvents 36511.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 366References 36612 Technological Advancement in Food Additives and Preservatives 375Shikha Pandhi, Arvind Kumar and Akansha GuptaAbbreviations 37612.1 Introduction 37712.2 Food Additives and Preservatives 37812.2.1 Classes of Food Additives 37912.2.2 Significance in Food Processing and Preservation 38112.2.3 Mechanism of Action of Food Preservatives 38112.3 Regulatory Aspects of Food Additives and Preservatives 38212.3.1 Generally Recognized as Safe 38312.3.2 FSSAI Regulations on Permissible Limits of Food Additives 38312.4 Health Concerns of Conventional Food Additives 38312.5 Technological Advancements in Food Additives and Preservatives 38412.5.1 Novel Food Additives 38412.5.1.1 Essential Oils/Phytochemicals 38512.5.1.2 Metallic Nanoparticles as Antimicrobial (Green Route) 38612.6 Novel Technological Approaches for Enhanced Functionality 38612.6.1 Nanoencapsulation 38612.6.1.1 Fundamentals and Techniques 38712.6.1.2 Types of Encapsulating Material 38812.7 Methods for Food Additives Determination 38912.7.1 Analytical Methods 38912.7.1.1 Spectroscopy Techniques 38912.7.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques 39012.7.1.3 Electroanalytical Techniques 39112.8 Future Prospects 39112.9 Conclusion 392References 39313 Sensors for Non-Destructive Quality Evaluation of Food 397Krishna Gopalakrishnan, Arun Sharma, Neela Emanuel, Pramod K Prabhakar and Ritesh Kumar13.1 Introduction 39813.2 Different Types of Non-Destructive Methods 40013.2.1 Mechanical Method 40013.2.1.1 Mechanical Thumb Method 40013.2.1.2 Sinclair IQTM–Firmness Tester (SIQ-FT) 40113.2.1.3 Laser Air-Puff 40113.2.2 Chemical Method 40113.2.2.1 Electronic Nose 40113.2.3 Electromagnetic Method 40413.2.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 40413.2.3.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 40613.2.4 Optical Method 40813.2.4.1 NIR Spectroscopy 40813.2.4.2 Image Analysis Techniques 41013.2.4.3 Time-Resolved Reflectance Spectrometry 41513.2.5 Dynamic Method 41813.2.5.1 X-Rays 41813.2.5.2 Computed Tomography 41913.2.5.3 Ultrasonic 42013.2.5.4 Acoustic Techniques 42113.2.6 Sensor Fusion 42313.3 Non-Destructive Quality Testing in Various Food Commodities 42513.3.1 Staple Foods 42513.3.1.1 Sensory Aspect 42613.3.1.2 Adulteration Aspects 42713.3.1.3 Chemical Aspects 42713.3.2 Fruits 42713.3.2.1 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Electronic Nose 42913.3.2.2 Fruit Quality Inspection Using UV-VIS-NIR Spectroscopy 42913.3.2.3 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Ultrasound Sensing Technique 43013.3.2.4 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Machine Vision Sensing Technique 43013.3.2.5 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Acoustic Impulse Technique 43113.3.3 Vegetables 43113.3.3.1 Spectroscopic Techniques 43113.3.3.2 Sound Waves Techniques 43413.3.3.3 Imaging Analysis Techniques 43513.4 Conclusion 436References 437Index 451