Global Climate Change and Plant Stress Management

Mohammad Wahid Ansari is Assistant Professor in the Department of Botany, Zakir Hussain Delhi College, University of Delhi, India. He has researched and published widely on plant biology and stress tolerance. Anil Kumar Singh is Principal Scientist at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi, India. He has researched extensively into plant adaptations and environmental responses, as well as plant stress tolerance and related subjects. Narendra Tuteja is Visiting Scientist at the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India. He has published extensively on plant stress tolerance, mango malformation and related subjects.

• List of Contributors xviiForeword xxiiiPreface xxvAuthor Biographies xxviiPart 1 Views and Visions 11 Boosting Resilience of Global Crop Production Through Sustainable Stress Management 3Rajeev K. Varshney and Abhishek BohraReferences 52 Sustaining Food Security Under Changing Stress Environment 7Sudhir K. SoporyReferences 83 Crop Improvement Under Climate Change 9Shivendra Bajaj and Ratna Kumria3.1 Crop Diversity to Mitigate Climate Change 103.2 Technology to Mitigate Climate Change 103.3 Farm Practices to Mitigate Climate Change 113.4 Conclusion 11References 114 Reactive Nitrogen in Climate Change, Crop Stress, and Sustainable Agriculture: A Personal Journey 13Nandula Raghuram4.1 Introduction 134.2 Reactive Nitrogen in Climate Change, Agriculture, and Beyond 134.3 Nitrogen, Climate, and Planetary Boundaries of Sustainability 144.4 Emerging Global Response and India’s Leadership in It 144.5 Regional and Global Partnerships for Effective Interventions 154.6 Building Crop NUE Paradigm Amidst Growing Focus on Stress 164.7 From NUE Phenotype to Genotype in Rice 174.8 Furthering the Research and Policy Agenda 18References 18Part 2 Climate Change: Global Impact 235 Climate-Resilient Crops for CO 2 Rich-Warmer Environment: Opportunities and Challenges 25Sayanta Kundu, Sudeshna Das, Satish K. Singh, Ratnesh K. Jha, and Rajeev Nayan Bahuguna5.1 Introduction 255.2 Climate Change Trend and Abiotic Stress: Yield Losses Due to Major Climate Change Associated Stresses Heat, Drought and Their Combination 265.3 Update on Crop Improvement Strategies Under Changing Climate 275.3.1 Advances in Breeding and Genomics 275.3.2 Advances in Phenomics and High Throughput Platforms 285.3.3 Non-destructive Phenotyping to Exploit Untapped Potential of Natural Genetic Diversity 285.4 Exploiting Climate-Smart Cultivation Practices 295.5 CO 2 -Responsive C 3 Crops for Future Environment 305.6 Conclusion 31References 316 Potential Push of Climate Change on Crop Production, Crop Adaptation, and Possible Strategies to Mitigate This 35Narendra Kumar and SM Paul Khurana6.1 Introduction 356.2 Influence of Climate Change on the Yield of Plants 366.3 Crop Adaptation in Mitigating Extreme Climatic Stresses 386.4 Factors That Limit Crop Development 396.5 Influence of Climate Change on Plants’ Morphobiochemical and Physiological Processes 396.6 Responses of Plant Hormones in Abiotic Stresses 406.7 Approaches to Combat Climate Changes 416.7.1 Cultural Methodologies 416.7.2 Conventional Techniques 416.7.3 Strategies Concerned with Genetics and Genomics 416.7.3.1 Omics-Led Breeding and Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) 416.7.3.2 Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) for Evaluating Stress Tolerance 426.7.3.3 Genome Selection (GS) Investigations for Crop Improvement 426.7.3.4 Genetic Engineering of Plants in Developing Stress Tolerance 436.7.4 Strategies of Genome Editing 436.7.5 Involvement of CRISPR/Cas 9 436.8 Conclusions 44Conflict of Interest Statement 44Acknowledgment 44References 457 Agrifood and Climate Change: Impact, Mitigation, and Adaptation Strategies 53Sudarshna Kumari and Gurdeep Bains7.1 Introduction 537.2 Causes of Climate Change 547.2.1 Greenhouse Gases 547.2.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion 547.2.3 Deforestation 557.2.4 Agricultural Expansion 557.3 Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture 557.3.1 Crop Productivity 567.3.2 Disease Development 587.3.3 Plant Responses to Climate Change 587.3.4 Livestock 597.3.5 Agriculture Economy 597.4 Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change 607.4.1 Climate-Smart Cultural Practices 607.4.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies 607.4.3 Stress-Tolerant Varieties 617.4.4 Precision Management of Nutrients 617.4.5 Forestry and Agroforestry 617.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 61References 628 Dynamic Photosynthetic Apparatus in Plants Combats Climate Change 65Ramwant Gupta and Ravinesh Rohit Prasad8.1 Introduction 658.2 Climate Change and Photosynthetic Apparatus 668.3 Engineered Dynamic Photosynthetic Apparatus 668.4 Conclusion and Prospects 68References 689 CRISPR/Cas Enables the Remodeling of Crops for Sustainable Climate-Smart Agriculture and Nutritional Security 71Tanushri Kaul, Rachana Verma, Sonia Khan Sony, Jyotsna Bharti, Khaled Fathy Abdel Motelb, Arul Prakash Thangaraj, Rashmi Kaul, Mamta Nehra, and Murugesh Eswaran9.1 Introduction: CRISPR/Cas Facilitated Remodeling of Crops 719.2 Impact of Climate Changes on Agriculture and Food Supply 729.3 Nutritionally Secure Climate-Smart Crops 739.4 Novel Game Changing Genome-Editing Approaches 749.4.1 Knockout-Based Approach 879.4.2 Knock-in-Based Approach 879.4.3 Activation or Repression-Based Approach 879.5 Genome Editing for Crop Enhancement: Ushering Towards Green Revolution 2.0 889.5.1 Mitigation of Abiotic Stress 889.5.2 Alleviation of Biotic Stress 899.5.3 Biofortification 899.6 Harnessing the Potential of NGS and ML for Crop Design Target 909.7 Does CRISPR/Cas Address the Snag of Genome Editing? 949.8 Edited Plant Code: Security Risk Assessment 959.9 Conclusion: Food Security on the Verge of Climate change 96References 96Part 3 Socioeconomic Aspects of Climate Change 11310 Perspective of Evolution of the C 4 Plants to Develop Climate Designer C 4 Rice as a Strategy for Abiotic Stress Management 115Shuvobrata Majumder, Karabi Datta, and Swapan K. Datta10.1 Introduction 11510.2 How Did Plants Evolve to the C 4 System? 11710.2.1 Gene Amplification and Modification 11710.2.2 Anatomical Preconditioning 11710.2.3 Increase in Bundle Sheath Organelles 11810.2.4 Glycine Shuttles and Photorespiratory CO 2 Pumps 11810.2.5 Enhancement of PEPC and PPDK Activity in the Mesophyll Tissue 11810.2.6 Integration of C 3 and C 4 Cycles 11810.3 What Are the Advantages of C 4 Plants over C 3 Plants? 11810.4 Molecular Engineering of C 4 Enzymes in Rice 11910.4.1 Green Tissue-Specific Promoters 12010.4.2 Expressing C 4 Enzyme, PEPC in Rice 12010.4.3 Expressing C 4 Enzyme, PPDK in Rice 12010.4.4 Expressing C 4 Enzyme, ME and NADP-ME in Rice 12110.4.5 Expressing Multiple C 4 Enzymes in Rice 12110.5 Application of CRISPR for Enhanced Photosynthesis 12110.6 Single-Cell C 4 Species 12110.7 Conclusion 122Acknowledgments 122References 12211 Role of Legume Genetic Resources in Climate Resilience 125Ruchi Bansal, Swati Priya, and H. K. Dikshit11.1 Introduction 12511.2 Legumes Under Abiotic Stress 12611.2.1 Legumes Under Drought Stress 12611.2.2 Legumes Under Waterlogging 12611.2.3 Legumes Under Salinity Stress 12711.2.4 Legumes Under Extreme Temperature 12711.3 Genetic Resources for Legume Improvement 12811.3.1 Lentil 12911.3.2 Mungbean 13011.3.3 Pigeon Pea 13111.3.4 Chickpea 13111.4 Conclusion 133References 13412 Oxygenic Photosynthesis – a Major Driver of Climate Change and Stress Tolerance 141Baishnab C. Tripathy12.1 Introduction 14112.2 Evolution of Chlorophyll 14112.3 The Great Oxygenation Event 14212.4Role of Forest in the Regulation of O 2 and CO 2 Concentrations in the Atmosphere 14212.5 Evolution of C 4 Plants 14212.6 The Impact of High Temperature 14312.7 c 4 Plants Are Tolerant to Salt Stress 14412.8 Converting C 3 Plants into C 4 – A Himalayan Challenge 14512.9 Carbonic Anhydrase 14512.10 Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase 14612.11 Malate Dehydrogenase 14712.12 Decarboxylating Enzymes 14712.12.1 NAD/NADP-Malic Enzyme 14812.12.2 Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase 14912.13 Pyruvate Orthophosphate Dikinase 14912.14 Regulation of C 4 Photosynthetic Gene Expression 15012.15 Use of C 3 Orthologs of C 4 Enzymes 15112.16 Conclusions and Future Directions 151Acknowledgment 152References 15213 Expand the Survival Limits of Crop Plants Under Cold Climate Region 161Bhuvnesh Sareen and Rohit Joshi13.1 Introduction 16113.2 Physiology of Cold Stress Tolerant Plants 16213.3 Stress Perception and Signaling 16313.4 Plant Survival Mechanism 16413.5 Engineering Cold Stress Tolerance 16513.6 Future Directions 168Acknowledgment 168References 16814 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and Climate-Smart Agriculture: Prospects and Challenges 175Sharma Deepika, Vikrant Goswami, and David Kothamasi14.1 Introduction 17514.2 What Is Climate-Smart Agriculture? 17614.3 AMF as a Tool to Practice Climate-Smart Agriculture 17714.3.1 AMF in Increasing Productivity of Agricultural Systems 17714.3.1.1 Plant Nutrition and Growth 17714.3.1.2 Improved Soil Structure and Fertility 18114.3.2 AMF-Induced Resilience in Crops to Climate Change 18214.3.2.1 AMF and Salinity Stress 18214.3.2.2 AMF and Drought Stress 18314.3.2.3 AMF and Heat Stress 18414.3.2.4 AMF and Cold Stress 18414.3.3 AMF-Mediated Mitigation of Climate Change 18614.3.4 Agricultural Practices and AMF Symbiosis – Crop Rotations, Tillage, and Agrochemicals 18714.3.5 AMF Symbiosis and Climate Change 18714.3.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 188Acknowledgment 189References 189Part 4 Plant Stress Under Climate Change: Molecular Insights 20115 Plant Stress and Climate Change: Molecular Insight 203Anamika Roy , Mamun Mandal, Ganesh Kumar Agrawal, Randeep Rakwal, and Abhijit Sarkar15.1 Introduction 20315.2 Different Stress Factors and Climate Changes Effects in Plants 20615.2.1 Water Stress 20615.2.1.1 Drought 20615.2.1.2 Flooding or Waterlogging 20615.2.2 Temperature Stress 20715.2.2.1 High Temperature Stress 20715.2.2.2 Low Temperature Stress 20715.2.3 Salinity Stress 20715.2.4 Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Stress 20715.2.5 Heavy Metal Stress 20715.2.6 Air Pollution Stress 20815.2.7 Climate Change 20815.3 Plant Responses Against Stress 20815.3.1 Water Stress Responses 20815.3.1.1 Drought Responses 20815.3.1.2 Waterlogging Responses 21015.3.2 Temperature Stress Responses 21015.3.2.1 High Temperature Stress Responses 21015.3.2.2 Low Temperature Stress Responses 21115.3.3 Salinity Stress Responses 21215.3.3.1 Genomic Responses 21215.3.3.2 Proteomic Responses 21215.3.3.3 Transcriptomic Responses 21215.3.3.4 Metabolomic Responses 21315.3.4 Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Stress 21315.3.4.1 Genomic Responses 21315.3.4.2 Proteomic Responses 21315.3.4.3 Transcriptomic Responses 21315.3.4.4 Metabolomic Responses 21315.3.5 Heavy Metal Stress Responses 21415.3.5.1 Genomic Responses 21415.3.5.2 Proteomic Responses 21415.3.5.3 Transcriptomic Responses 21415.3.5.4 Metabolomic Responses 21415.3.6 Air Pollution Stress Responses 21415.3.6.1 Genomic Responses 21515.3.6.2 Proteomic Responses 21515.3.6.3 Transcriptomic Responses 21515.3.6.4 Metabolomic Responses 21515.3.7 Climate Change Responses 21515.3.7.1 Genomic Responses 21515.3.7.2 Proteomic Responses 21615.3.7.3 Transcriptomic Responses 21615.3.7.4 Metabolomic Responses 21615.4 Conclusion 216References 21616 Developing Stress-Tolerant Plants: Role of Small GTP Binding Proteins (RAB and RAN) 229Manas K. Tripathy and Sudhir K. Sopory16.1 Introduction 22916.2 A Brief Overview of GTP-Binding Proteins 23016.3 Small GTP-Binding Proteins 23016.3.1 Rab 23116.3.1.1 Role of RAB’s in Plant 23116.3.2 Ran 23416.3.2.1 Role of RAN in Plants 23416.4 Conclusions 236Acknowledgments 237References 23717 Biotechnological Strategies to Generate Climate-Smart Crops: Recent Advances and Way Forward 241Jyoti Maurya, Roshan Kumar Singh, and Manoj Prasad17.1 Introduction 24117.2 Climate Change and Crop Yield 24217.3 Effect of Climate Change on Crop Morpho-physiology, and Molecular Level 24317.4 Plant Responses to Stress Conditions 24417.5 Strategies to Combat Climate Change 24517.5.1 Cultural and Conventional Methods 24517.5.2 Multi-omics Approach 24517.5.3 Biotechnological Approaches 24817.5.3.1 Combating Climate Change Through Overexpression of Candidate Gene(s) 24817.5.3.2 Small RNA-Mediated Gene Silencing Approach 24917.5.3.3 Gene Editing Through Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) Approach 25017.6 Conclusion and Way Forward 251Acknowledgments 252Declaration of Interest Statement 252References 25218 Receptor-Like Kinases and ROS Signaling: Critical Arms of Plant Response to Stress 263Samir Sharma18.1 Preamble 26318.2 Climate Change: The Agent of Stress 26418.3 Abiotic Stress: A Severe Threat by Itself and a Window of Opportunity for Biotic Stress Agents 26418.4 Plant Receptor-Like Kinases (RLKs) 26518.5 Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases 26718.6 Why Are Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases Needed? 26818.7 Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases in Plant Defense 26918.8 Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases in Plant Development 27018.9 Reactive Oxygen Species: Dual Role in Plants and Links to Receptor-Like Protein Kinases 27218.10 Conclusion 273References 27319 Phytohormones as a Novel Weapon in Management of Plant Stress Against Biotic Agents 277Rewaj Subba, Swarnendu Roy, and Piyush Mathur19.1 Introduction 27719.2 Phytohormones and Biotic Stress Management 27819.2.1 Salicylic Acid 27819.2.2 Jasmonic Acid (JA) 27819.2.3 Ethylene (ET) 27919.2.4 Abscisic Acid (ABA) 27919.3 Phytohormone Mediated Cross-Talk in Plant Defense Under Biotic Stress 281References 28220 Recent Perspectives of Drought Tolerance Traits: Physiology and Biochemistry 287Priya Yadav, Mohammad Wahid Ansari, Narendra Tuteja, and Moaed Al Meselmani20.1 Introduction 28720.2 Effects and Response During Drought Stress on Physiological and Biochemical Traits of Plants 28820.3 Recent Advances in Drought Stress Tolerance 28920.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPRs) in Drought Stress Tolerance 29120.5 Genomic Level Approach in Drought Stress Tolerance 29120.6 Conclusion 293References 29321 Understanding the Role of Key Transcription Factors in Regulating Salinity Tolerance in Plants 299Sahana Basu and Gautam Kumar21.1 Introduction 29921.2 Transcription Factors Conferring Salinity Tolerance 29921.2.1 APETALA2/Ethylene Responsive Factor 29921.2.1.1 Structure of AP2/ERF Transcription Factors 30121.2.1.2 Classification of AP2/ERF Transcription Factors 30121.2.1.3 Role of AP2/ERF Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 30221.2.2 Wrky 30221.2.2.1 Structure of WRKY Transcription Factors 30221.2.2.2 Classification of WRKY Transcription Factors 30221.2.2.3 Role of WRKY Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 30621.2.3 Basic Helix-Loop-Helix 30721.2.3.1 Structure of bHLH Transcription Factors 30721.2.3.2 Classification of bHLH Transcription Factors 30721.2.3.3 Role of bHLH Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 30721.2.4 v-Myb Myeloblastosis Viral Oncogene Homolog 30821.2.4.1 Structure of MYB Transcription Factors 30821.2.4.2 Classification of MYB Transcription Factors 30821.2.4.3 Role of MYB Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 30921.2.5 NAM (for no apical meristem), ATAF1 and −2, and CUC2 (for cup-shaped cotyledon) 30921.2.5.1 Structure of NAC Transcription Factors 30921.2.5.2 Classification of NAC Transcription Factors 30921.2.5.3 Role of NAC Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 31021.2.6 Nuclear Factor-Y 31021.2.6.1 Structure of NF-Y Transcription Factors 31021.2.6.2 Classification of NF-Y Transcription Factors 31021.2.6.3 Role of NF-Y Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 31121.2.7 Basic Leucine Zipper 31121.2.7.1 Structure of bZIP Transcription Factors 31121.2.7.2 Classification of bZIP Transcription Factors 31221.2.7.3 Role of bZIP Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 31221.3 Conclusion 312References 312Part 5 Stress Management Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture 31722 Seed Quality Assessment and Improvement Between Advancing Agriculture and Changing Environments 319Andrea Pagano, Paola Pagano, Conrado Dueñas, Adriano Griffo, Shraddha Shridhar Gaonkar, Francesca Messina, Alma Balestrazzi, and Anca Macovei22.1 Introduction: A Seed’s Viewpoint on Climate Change 31922.2 Assessing Seed Quality: Invasive and Non-invasive Techniques for Grain Testing 32122.3 Improving Seed Quality: Optimizing Priming Techniques to Face the Challenges of Climate Changes 32422.4 Understanding Seed Quality: Molecular Hallmarks and Experimental Models for Future Perspectives in Seed Technology 32722.5 Conclusive Remarks 329References 32923 CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing and Plant Stress Management 335Isorchand Chongtham and Priya Yadav23.1 Introduction 33523.2 CRISPR/Cas 9 33623.2.1 CRISPR Cas System 33623.2.2 CRISPR Cas 9 33723.2.3 CRISPR/Cas9 Mechanism 33823.2.4 CRISPR/Cas9 Types of Gene Editing 33923.3 Construct of the CRISPR/Cas 9 34123.3.1 The gRNA 34123.3.2 The Choice of Gene Regulatory Elements (GREs) 34123.3.3 Multiplex CRISPR 34123.4 Plant Genome Editing 34323.4.1 Procedure 34323.4.2 Plant Improvement Strategies Based on Genome Editing 34423.5 Plant Stress 34423.5.1 Plant Stress and Their Types 34423.5.2 Plant Remedial Measures Toward Stress 34523.6 Genome Editing for Plant Stress 34623.6.1 Biotic Stress 34823.6.1.1 Bacterium 34823.6.1.2 Virus 34823.6.1.3 Fungus 34823.6.1.4 Insect 34923.6.2 Abiotic Stress 34923.6.2.1 Chemicals 34923.6.2.2 Environmental 34923.7 Elimination of CRISPR/Cas from the System After Genetic Editing 35023.8 Prospects and Limitations 350References 35124 Ethylene Mediates Plant-Beneficial Fungi Interaction That Leads to Increased Nutrient Uptake, Improved Physiological Attributes, and Enhanced Plant Tolerance Under Salinity Stress 361Priya Yadav, Mohammad Wahid Ansari, Narendra Tuteja, and Ratnum K. Wattal24.1 Introduction 36124.2 Plant Response Towards Salinity Stress 36124.3 Plant–Fungal Interaction and the Mechanism of Plant Growth Promotion by Fungi 36224.3.1 Nutrient Acquisition and Phytohormones Production 36224.3.2 Activation of Systemic Resistance 36424.3.3 Production of Siderophores 36424.3.4 Production of Antibiotics and Secondary Metabolites 36524.3.5 Protection to Biotic and Abiotic Stress 36524.4 Fungi and Ethylene Production and Its Effects 36524.5 Role and Mechanism of Ethylene in Salinity Stress Tolerance 36624.6 Conclusion 367References 36725 Role of Chemical Additives in Plant Salinity Stress Mitigation 371Priya Yadav, Mohammad Wahid Ansari, and Narendra Tuteja25.1 Introduction 37125.2 Types of Chemical Additives and Their Source 37225.3 Application and Mechanism of Action 37325.4 NO (Nitric Oxide) in Salt Stress Tolerance 37425.5 Melatonin in Salt Stress Tolerance 37425.6 Polyamines in Salt Stress Tolerance 37425.7 Salicylic Acid (SA) in Salt Stress Tolerance 37525.8 Ethylene in Salinity Stress Tolerance 37625.9 Trehalose in Salinity Stress Tolerance 37725.10 Kresoxim-Methyl (KM) in Salinity Stress Tolerance 37725.11 Conclusion 377References 37726 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Stress Management Under Changing Climate Conditions 383Priya Yadav and Zahid Hameed Siddiqui26.1 Introduction 38326.1.1 Types of Plant Secondary Metabolites 38326.1.1.1 Phenolics 38426.1.1.2 Terpenoids 38426.1.1.3 Nitrogen-Containing Secondary Metabolites 38426.2 Biosynthesis of Plant Secondary Metabolites 38526.2.1 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Mitigating Abiotic Stress 38826.2.2 Secondary Metabolites in Drought Stress Mitigation 38926.2.2.1 Phenolic compounds and drought stress 38926.2.2.2 Terpenoids in drought stress tolerance 38926.2.3 Secondary Metabolites in Mitigating Salinity Stress 39026.2.4 Secondary Metabolites as UV Scavengers 39026.3 Heavy Metal Stress and Secondary Metabolites 39026.3.1.1 Phenolic compounds and metal stress 39126.3.2 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Biotic Stress Mitigation 39226.3.2.1 Terpenoids and Biotic Stress 39226.3.2.2 Phenolic Compounds and Biotic Stress 39226.3.2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Compound and Biotic Stress 39326.4 Counteradaptation of Insects Against Secondary Metabolites 39326.5 Sustainable Crop Protection and Secondary Metabolites 39326.6 Conclusion 393References 39427 Osmolytes: Efficient Oxidative Stress-Busters in Plants 399Naser A. Anjum, Palaniswamy Thangavel, Faisal Rasheed, Asim Masood, Hadi Pirasteh-Anosheh, and Nafees A. Khan27.1 Introduction 39927.1.1 Plant Health, Stress Factors, and Oxidative Stress and Its Markers 39927.1.2 Modulators of Oxidative Stress Markers and Antioxidant Metabolism 39927.2 Osmolytes – An Overview 40027.2.1 Role of Major Osmolytes in Protection of Plants Against Oxidative Stress 40127.2.1.1 Betaines and Related Compounds 40127.2.1.2 Proline 40127.2.1.3 γ-Aminobutyric Acid (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid) 40227.2.1.4 Polyols 40227.2.1.5 Sugars 40327.3 Conclusion and Perspectives 404References 404Index 411