Physics of Energy Sources

George King is Emeritus Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester where he is a member of the Photon Physics Research Group. His area of research is Atomic and Molecular physics and he has published more than 200 papers in the scientific literature. He has taught a number of lecture courses in the School of Physics and Astronomy including the course Physics of Energy Sources. Professor King is author of Vibrations and Waves, which is also in the Manchester Physics Series. He has acted as External Examiner in Physics at a number of universities in both the UK and Ireland and as a scientific consultant to industry. He is married to Dr Michele Siggel-King who works in cancer research and his hobbies include playing and listening to music.

• Editors’ preface to the Manchester Physics Series xiAuthor’s preface xiii1 Introduction 11.1 Energy consumption 11.2 Energy sources 31.3 Renewable and non-renewable energy sources 51.4 The form and conversion of energy 61.4.1 Thermal energy sources 71.4.2 Mechanical energy sources 71.4.3 Photovoltaic sources 71.4.4 Energy storage 8Problems 1 92 The atomic nucleus 112.1 The composition and properties of nuclei 122.1.1 The composition of nuclei 122.1.2 The size of a nucleus 142.1.3 The distributions of nuclear matter and charge 192.1.4 The mass of a nucleus 212.1.5 The charge of a nucleus 242.1.6 Nuclear binding energy 272.1.7 Binding energy curve of the nuclides 302.1.8 The semi-empirical mass formula 322.2 Nuclear forces and energies 352.2.1 Characteristics of the nuclear force 352.2.2 Nuclear energies 362.2.3 Quantum mechanical description of a particle in a potential well 392.3 Radioactivity and nuclear stability 472.3.1 Segré chart of the stable nuclides 482.3.2 Decay laws of radioactivity 492.3.3 α, β and γ decay 57Problems 2 673 Nuclear power 713.1 How to get energy from the nucleus 713.2 Nuclear reactions 733.2.1 Nuclear reactions 733.2.2 Q-value of a nuclear reaction 743.2.3 Reaction cross-sections and reaction rates 763.3 Nuclear fission 823.3.1 Liquid-drop model of nuclear fission 833.3.2 Induced nuclear fission 863.3.3 Fission cross-sections 873.3.4 Fission reactions and products 883.3.5 Energy in fission 903.3.6 Moderation of fast neutrons 923.3.7 Uranium enrichment 933.4 Controlled fission reactions 973.4.1 Chain reactions 973.4.2 Control of fission reactions 1013.4.3 Fission reactors 1033.4.4 Commercial nuclear reactors 1053.4.5 Nuclear waste 1073.5 Nuclear fusion 1093.5.1 Fusion reactions 1103.5.2 Energy in fusion 1113.5.3 Coulomb barrier for nuclear fusion 1133.5.4 Fusion reaction rates 1133.5.5 Performance criteria 1153.5.6 Controlled thermonuclear fusion 117Problems 3 1234 Solar power 1274.1 Stellar fusion 1284.1.1 Star formation and evolution 1284.1.2 Thermonuclear fusion in the Sun: the proton–proton cycle 1314.1.3 Solar radiation 1324.2 Blackbody radiation 1344.2.1 Laws of blackbody radiation 1354.2.2 Emissivity 1374.2.3 Birth of the photon 1414.3 Solar radiation and its interaction with the Earth 1454.3.1 Characteristics of solar radiation 1454.3.2 Interaction of solar radiation with Earth and its atmosphere 1474.3.3 Penetration of solar energy into the ground 1554.4 Geothermal energy 1594.4.1 Shallow geothermal energy 1604.4.2 Deep geothermal energy 1614.5 Solar heaters 1624.5.1 Solar water heaters 1624.5.2 Heat transfer processes 1654.5.3 Solar thermal power systems 1724.6 Heat engines: converting heat into work 1744.6.1 Equation of state of an ideal gas 1754.6.2 Internal energy, work and heat: the first law of thermodynamics 1774.6.3 Specific heats of gases 1814.6.4 Isothermal and adiabatic expansion 1834.6.5 Heat engines and the second law of thermodynamics 185Problems 4 1965 Semiconductor solar cells 2015.1 Introduction 2015.2 Semiconductors 2045.2.1 The band structure of crystalline solids 2045.2.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors 2085.3 The p–n junction 2145.3.1 The p–n junction in equilibrium 2145.3.2 The biased p–n junction 2175.3.3 The current–voltage characteristic of a p–n junction 2195.3.4 Electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor 2225.3.5 The Fermi energy in a p–n junction 2275.4 Semiconductor solar cells 2295.4.1 Photon absorption at a p–n junction 2295.4.2 Power generation by a solar cell 2315.4.3 Maximum power delivery from a solar cell 2355.4.4 The Shockley–Queisser limit 2385.4.5 Solar cell construction 2405.4.6 Increasing the efficiency of solar cells and alternative solar cell materials 243Problems 5 2486 Wind power 2516.1 A brief history of wind power 2516.2 Origin and directions of the wind 2536.2.1 The Coriolis force 2536.3 The flow of ideal fluids 2566.3.1 The continuity equation 2576.3.2 Bernoulli’s equation 2586.4 Extraction of wind power by a turbine 2636.4.1 The Betz criterion 2656.4.2 Action of wind turbine blades 2686.5 Wind turbine design and operation 2716.6 Siting of a wind turbine 277Problems 6 2807 Water power 2837.1 Hydroelectric power 2847.1.1 The hydroelectric plant and its principles of operation 2847.1.2 Flow of a viscous fluid in a pipe 2867.1.3 Hydroelectric turbines 2887.2 Wave power 2917.2.1 Wave motion 2927.2.2 Water waves 3067.2.3 Wave energy converters 3197.3 Tidal power 3247.3.1 Origin of the tides 3257.3.2 Variation and enhancement of tidal range 3357.3.3 Harnessing tidal power 341Problems 7 3468 Energy storage 3498.1 Types of energy storage 3508.2 Chemical energy storage 3518.2.1 Biological energy storage 3518.2.2 Hydrogen energy storage 3518.3 Thermal energy storage 3528.4 Mechanical energy storage 3558.4.1 Pumped hydroelectric energy storage 3558.4.2 Compressed air energy storage 3578.4.3 Flywheel energy storage 3618.5 Electrical energy storage 3648.5.1 Capacitors and super-capacitors 3658.5.2 Superconducting magnetic storage 3678.5.3 Rechargeable batteries 3688.5.4 Fuel cells 3708.6 Distribution of electrical power 372Problems 8 374Solutions to problems 377Index 397