Tactile Sensing and Displays

Javad Dargahi, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, Concordia University, CanadaDr. Dargahi received his PhD from Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, in the area of "Robotic Tactile Sensing", in 1993. He joined Concordia University, as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, in September 2001. He received his tenure and was promoted to associate professor in June 2006. His research areas include: Design and fabrication of haptic sensors and feedback systems for minimally invasive surgery and robotics, micromachined sensors and actuators and teletaction. Dr. Dargahi has published 65 journal and 65 refereed conference papers.Saeed Sokhanvar, Senior Project Engineer, Helbling Precision Engineering, USASaeed Sokhanvar is Senior Project Engineer at Helbling Precision Engineering, Cambridge, MA. Before this he was a PostDoctoral Fellow at MIT. He has received many academic awards and co-authored multiple articles in refereed journals and conference proceedings.Siamak Najarian, Professor, Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, IranProf. S. Najarian is Full-Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Amirkabir University of Technology. He completed his PhD in Biomedical Engineering at Oxford University, and had a post-doctoral position at the same university for one year. His research interests are the applications of artificial tactile sensing (especially in robotic surgery), mechatronics in biological systems, and design of artificial organs. He is the author and translator of 26 books in the field of biomedical engineering, 9 of which are written in English. Prof. Najarian has published more than 170 international journal and conference papers in the field of biomedical engineering along with two international books in the same field.

• Preface xiAbout the Authors xiii1 Introduction to Tactile Sensing and Display 11.1 Background 11.2 Conventional and Modern Surgical Techniques 31.3 Motivation 41.4 Tactile Sensing 51.5 Force Sensing 51.6 Force Position 51.7 Softness Sensing 61.8 Lump Detection 71.9 Tactile Sensing in Humans 81.10 Haptic Sense 81.10.1 Mechanoreception 81.10.2 Proprioceptive Sense 111.11 Tactile Display Requirements 111.12 Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) 121.12.1 Advantages/Disadvantages of MIS 131.13 Robotics 141.13.1 Robotic Surgery 171.14 Applications 17References 182 Tactile Sensing Technologies 232.1 Introduction 232.2 Capacitive Sensors 252.3 Conductive Elastomer Sensors 252.4 Magnetic-Based Sensors 262.5 Optical Sensors 272.6 MEMS-Based Sensors 282.7 Piezoresistive Sensors 292.7.1 Conductive Elastomers, Carbon, Felt, and Carbon Fibers 302.8 Piezoelectric Sensors 31References 343 Piezoelectric Polymers: PVDF Fundamentals 373.1 Constitutive Equations of Crystals 373.2 IEEE Notation 423.3 Fundamentals of PVDF 433.4 Mechanical Characterization of Piezoelectric Polyvinylidene Fluoride Films: Uniaxial and Biaxial 443.4.1 The Piezoelectric Properties of Uniaxial and Biaxial PVDF Films 453.5 The Anisotropic Property of Uniaxial PVDF Film and Its Influence on Sensor Applications 473.6 The Anisotropic Property of Biaxial PVDF Film and Its Influence on Sensor Applications 513.7 Characterization of Sandwiched Piezoelectric PVDF Films 513.8 Finite Element Analysis of Sandwiched PVDF 533.8.1 Uniaxial PVDF Film 553.8.2 Biaxial PVDF Film 583.9 Experiments 593.9.1 Surface Friction Measurement 603.9.2 Experiments Performed on Sandwiched PVDF for Different Surface Roughness 613.10 Discussion and Conclusions 64References 654 Design, Analysis, Fabrication, and Testing of Tactile Sensors 674.1 Endoscopic Force Sensor: Sensor Design 684.1.1 Modeling 684.1.2 Sensor Fabrication 714.1.3 Experimental Analysis 734.2 Multi-Functional MEMS–Based Tactile Sensor: Design, Analysis, Fabrication, and Testing 774.2.1 Sensor Design 774.2.2 Finite Element Modeling 814.2.3 Sensor Fabrication 844.2.4 Sensor Assembly 924.2.5 Testing and Validation: Softness Characterization 93References 975 Bulk Softness Measurement Using a Smart Endoscopic Grasper 995.1 Introduction 995.2 Problem Definition 995.3 Method 1005.4 Energy and Steepness 1045.5 Calibrating the Grasper 1055.6 Results and Discussion 106References 1116 Lump Detection 1136.1 Introduction 1136.2 Constitutive Equations for Hyperelasticity 1136.2.1 Hyperelastic Relationships in Uniaxial Loading 1146.3 Finite Element Modeling 1176.4 The Parametric Study 1196.4.1 The Effect of Lump Size 1206.4.2 The Effect of Depth 1226.4.3 The Effect of Applied Load 1236.4.4 The Effect of Lump Stiffness 1246.5 Experimental Validation 1256.6 Discussion and Conclusions 127References 1287 Tactile Display Technology 1317.1 The Coupled Nature of the Kinesthetic and Tactile Feedback 1327.2 Force-Feedback Devices 1347.3 A Review of Recent and Advanced Tactile Displays 1347.3.1 Electrostatic Tactile Displays for Roughness 1347.3.2 Rheological Tactile Displays for Softness 1367.3.3 Electromagnetic Tactile Displays (Shape Display) 1377.3.4 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Tactile Display (Shape) 1387.3.5 Piezoelectric Tactile Display (Lateral Skin Stretch) 1387.3.6 Air Jet Tactile Displays (Surface Indentation) 1407.3.7 Thermal Tactile Displays 1417.3.8 Pneumatic Tactile Displays (Shape) 1427.3.9 Electrocutaneous Tactile Displays 1427.3.10 Other Tactile Display Technologies 142References 1438 Grayscale Graphical Softness Tactile Display 1478.1 Introduction 1478.2 Graphical Softness Display 1478.2.1 Feedback System 1488.2.2 Sensor 1488.2.3 Data Acquisition System 1508.2.4 Signal Processing 1508.2.5 Results and Discussion 1558.3 Graphical Representation of a Lump 1568.3.1 Sensor Structure 1578.3.2 Rendering Algorithm 1588.3.3 Experiments 1658.3.4 Results and Discussion 1678.4 Summary and Conclusions 169References 1699 Minimally Invasive Robotic Surgery 1719.1 Robotic System for Endoscopic Heart Surgery 1739.2 da Vinci™ and Amadeus Composer™ Robot Surgical System 1749.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Robotic Surgery 1769.4 Applications 1789.4.1 Practical Applications of Robotic Surgery Today 1809.5 The Future of Robotic Surgery 181References 18210 Teletaction 18510.1 Introduction 18510.2 Application Fields 18610.2.1 Telemedicine or in Absentia Health Care 18610.2.2 Telehealth or e–Health 18710.2.3 Telepalpation, Remote Palpation, or Artificial Palpation 18710.2.4 Telemanipulation 18910.2.5 Telepresence 19010.3 Basic Elements of a Teletaction System 19110.4 Introduction to Human Psychophysics 19110.4.1 Steven’s Power Law 19410.4.2 Law of Asymptotic Linearity 19610.4.3 Law of Additivity 19710.4.4 General Law of Differential Sensitivity 19810.5 Psychophysics for Teletaction 19910.5.1 Haptic Object Recognition 19910.5.2 Identification of Spatial Properties 20410.5.3 Perception of Texture 20610.5.4 Control of Haptic Interfaces 20610.6 Basic Issues and Limitations of Teletaction Systems 20810.7 Applications of Teletaction 20910.8 Minimally Invasive and Robotic Surgery (MIS and MIRS) 20910.9 Robotics 21210.10 Virtual Environment 213References 21511 Teletaction Using a Linear Actuator Feedback-Based Tactile Display 22311.1 System Design 22311.2 Tactile Actuator 22411.3 Force Sensor 22511.4 Shaft Position Sensor 22711.5 Stress–Strain Curves 22811.6 PID Controller 22811.6.1 Linear Actuator Model 23011.6.2 Verifying the Identification Results 23211.6.3 Design of the PID Controller 23311.7 Processing Software 23711.8 Experiments 23711.9 Results and Discussion 23811.10 Summary and Conclusion 241References 24412 Clinical and Regulatory Challenges for Medical Devices 24512.1 Clinical Issues 24512.2 Regulatory Issues 24712.2.1 Medical Product Jurisdiction 24812.2.2 Types of Medical Devices 24812.2.3 Medical Device Classification 24912.2.4 Determining Device Classification 25012.3 Medical Device Approval Process 25112.3.1 Design Controls 25212.3.2 The 510 (K) Premarket Notifications 25212.3.3 The Premarket Approval Application 25412.3.4 The Quality System Regulation 25512.4 FDA Clearance of Robotic Surgery Systems 256References 256Index 259