Engineering Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and Modeling

Inbunden, Engelska, 2019

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Understand the fundamentals, methods, and processes of modern hydrology

This comprehensive engineering textbook offers a thorough overview of all aspects of hydrology and shows how to apply hydrologic principles for effective management of water resources. It presents detailed explanations of scientific principles along with real-world applications and technologies. Engineering Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and Modeling follows a logical progression that builds on foundational concepts with modern hydrologic methods. Every hydrologic process is clearly explained along with current techniques for modeling and analyzing data. You will get practice problems throughout that help reinforce important concepts.

Coverage includes:

•The hydrologic cycle

•Water balance

•Components of the hydrologic cycle

•Evapotranspiration

•Infiltration and soil moisture

•Surface water

•Groundwater

•Water quality

•Hydrologic measurements

•Streamflow measurement

•Remote sensing and geographic information systems

•Hydrologic analysis and modeling

•Unit hydrograph models

•River flow modeling

•Design storm and design flood estimation

•Environmental flows

•Impact of climate change on water management

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum:2019-03-29
Mått:185 x 241 x 38 mm
Vikt:1 279 g
Format:Inbunden
Språk:Engelska
Antal sidor:624
Förlag:McGraw-Hill Education
ISBN:9781259641978

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Innehållsförteckning

Preface Acknowledgments Part 1 Preliminaries 1 Introduction 1.1 What Is Hydrology? 1.2 A Brief History of Hydrology 1.2.1 Hydrology in Ancient Times—The Case of India 1.2.2 Development of Hydrology, from 1850 Onward 1.2.3 Future Directions 1.3 Why This Book—and Why Now? 1.3.1 Who Is the Intended Readership of This Book? 1.3.2 Organization of This Book 1.4 Summary 1.5 Questions 1.6 References 2 The Hydrologic Cycle 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Components of the Hydrologic Cycle 2.2.1 Atmospheric Component 2.2.2 Surface Components 2.2.3 Importance of the Components of the Hydrologic Cycle 2.3 Scales for the Study of the Hydrologic Cycle 2.3.1 Global Scale 2.3.2 Catchment Scale 2.3.3 Time Scales in the Hydrologic Cycle 2.4 Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles and Their Relation with the Hydrologic Cycle 2.4.1 Carbon Cycle 2.4.2 Nitrogen Cycle 2.4.3 Linkages Among Hydrologic, Carbon, and Nitrogen Cycles 2.5 Influence of Human Activity and Land-Use Changes on the Hydrologic Cycle 2.5.1 Effects of Agricultural Changes 2.5.2 Effects of Urbanization 2.5.3 Effects of Forest Activities 2.5.4 Effects of Structural Changes 2.5.5 Changes in Water Quality 2.6 Impact of Climate Change on the Hydrologic Cycle 2.7 Summary 2.8 Questions 2.9 Activities 2.10 References 3 Water Balance 3.1 Water Balance—The Mathematical Representation of the Hydrologic Cycle 3.2 Forms of the Water Balance Equation 3.3 Closure of the Water Balance Equation 3.4 Global Water Balance 3.4.1 Continental Water Balance 3.4.2 River Basin Water Balance 3.4.3 The Impact of Natural and Human-Induced Changes on Water Balance 3.5 Summary 3.6 Questions 3.7 References Part 2 Hydrologic Components 4 Precipitation and Interception 4.1 Precipitation 4.2 Cloud Formation 4.2.1 Classification of Precipitation 4.2.2 Cloud Types 4.3 Observation of Precipitation 4.3.1 Rainfall Measurement 4.3.2 Nonrecording Rain Gauges 4.3.3 Self-Recording Rain Gauge (SRRG) 4.3.4 Tipping-Bucket Rain Gauge 4.3.5 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar 4.4 Processing of Rainfall Data 4.4.1 Internal Consistency Check 4.4.2 Scrutiny of Precipitation Data by Multiple Time Series Analysis 4.4.3 Scrutiny by Statistical Tests 4.4.4 Correction and Completion of Rainfall Data 4.4.5 Spatial Consistency Check 4.5 Spatial Averaging of Rainfall Data 4.5.1 Arithmetic Average 4.5.2 Thiessen Polygon Method 4.5.3 Isohyetal Method 4.5.4 Kriging 4.6 Estimation of Missing Data 4.6.1 Normal Ratio Method 4.6.2 Inverse Distance Power Method 4.6.3 Relation Between Point and Areal Rainfall 4.7 Disaggregation of Rainfall Data 4.8 Snow Data 4.8.1 Observation of Snow Data 4.8.2 Measurement of Snow by Remote Sensing 4.9 Regional/Global Meteorological Data Sets 4.10 Rainstorm Analysis 4.11 Interception 4.12 Summary 4.13 Questions 4.14 References 5 Evapotranspiration 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Definitions 5.1.2 Evaporation Process 5.1.3 Physics of Evaporation 5.2 Factors Affecting Evaporation 5.2.1 Temperature 5.2.2 Processing of Temperature Data 5.2.3 Solar Radiation 5.2.4 Sunshine Duration 5.2.5 Relative Humidity 5.2.6 Wind Speed 5.2.7 Atmospheric Pressure 5.2.8 Water Quality 5.2.9 Water Depth and Soil Type 5.3 Measurement of Evaporation 5.3.1 The U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Land Pan 5.3.2 Analysis of Pan Evaporation Data 5.3.3 Estimation of Lake Evaporation from Pan Measurements 5.4 Determination of Evaporation from Water Bodies 5.4.1 Water Budget 5.4.2 Energy Budget 5.4.3 Combination Method 5.5 Transpiration 5.6 Evapotranspiration 5.6.1 Measurement of Evapotranspiration 5.7 Estimation of Evapotranspiration 5.7.1 FAO-56 Penman-Monteith Method for the Estimation of ET 5.7.2 Bowen Ratio Energy Balance (BREB) Method 5.7.3 Limits on Evapotranspiration 5.7.4 The Budyko Curve 5.8 Reduced-Set Methods for Evapotranspiration Estimation 5.8.1 Temperature-Based Evapotranspiration Estimation Methods 5.8.2 The Hargreaves-Samani Method 5.8.3 The Thornthwaite Method 5.8.4 The Blaney-Criddle Method 5.9 Radiation-Based Methods 5.9.1 The Priestley-Taylor Method 5.9.2 The Turc Method 5.9.3 The Jensen and Haise Method 5.9.4 Reduced-Set PM 5.9.5 Comments on Reduced-Set Methods 5.10 Emerging Methods for ET Estimation 5.10.1 Eddy Covariance Technique 5.10.2 Remote Sensing for Measurement of Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 5.11 Application of Evapotranspiration in Hydrology 5.12 Questions 5.13 References 6 Infiltration and Soil Moisture 6.1 Infiltration Process 6.2 Soil and Its Hydrologic Properties 6.2.1 Soil Profile 6.2.2 Soil Texture 6.2.3 Soil Water Content 6.3 Soil Water 6.3.1 Movement of Soil Water 6.3.2 Antecedent Moisture Condition 6.4 Measurement of Soil Water Properties 6.4.1 Particle Size Distribution 6.4.2 Soil Moisture Characteristic Curve 6.5 Estimation of Soil Water Properties 6.6 Governing Equations of Soil Water Movement 6.7 Solving the Richards Equation 6.8 Generalized Infiltration Model 6.9 Empirical Infiltration Models 6.9.1 Kostiakov Model 6.9.2 Horton Equation 6.9.3 Philip Two-Term Method 6.9.4 Green-Ampt Model 6.9.5 Green-Ampt Model for Rainfall Infiltration Case 6.10 Applications of Infiltration Theory 6.11 Questions 6.12 References 7 Surface Water 7.1 Catchments 7.1.1 Delineation of Catchments 7.1.2 Channel Networks 7.2 Hydrographs 7.2.1 Elements of Hydrographs 7.2.2 Hydrograph Time Characteristics 7.3 Components of Streamflow 7.3.1 Surface Runoff 7.3.2 Interflow 7.3.3 Direct Runoff 7.3.4 Baseflow 7.4 Catchment Response Mechanisms 7.4.1 Hydrograph Development: Small Elemental Area 7.4.2 Hydrograph Development: Small Natural Catchment 7.4.3 Overland Flow Generation 7.5 Factors Affecting Runoff 7.5.1 Properties of a Rainstorm 7.5.2 Topography and Orientation 7.5.3 Size and Shape 7.5.4 Soils and Geology 7.5.5 Land Use and Land Cover 7.6 Baseflow Separation 7.6.1 Hydrograph Separation 7.6.2 Separation Using Digital Filters 7.6.3 Chemical and Isotope Techniques 7.7 Summary 7.8 Questions 7.9 References 8 Groundwater 8.1 Definitions and Notation 8.1.1 Groundwater 8.1.2 Aquifers 8.1.3 Types of Aquifers 8.1.4 Confined Aquifer 8.1.5 Leaky Aquifer 8.1.6 Perched Aquifer 8.1.7 Water Table 8.1.8 Phreatic Surface 8.1.9 Groundwater Basin 8.1.10 Recharge Area 8.1.11 Porosity 8.1.12 Void Ratio 8.1.13 Permeability 8.1.14 Hydraulic Conductivity 8.1.15 Anisotropy and Heterogeneity 8.1.16 Transmissivity 8.1.17 Specific Yield 8.1.18 Specific Retention 8.1.19 Compressibility and Effective Stress 8.1.20 Specific Storage 8.1.21 Storativity 8.1.22 Hydraulic Diffusivity 8.2 Geologic Formations 8.2.1 Unconsolidated Rocks 8.2.2 Semiconsolidated Rocks 8.2.3 Consolidated Rocks 8.2.4 Geologic Controls 8.2.5 Formations as Aquifers 8.3 Groundwater Flow Equations 8.3.1 Darcy’s Law 8.3.2 Continuity Equation 8.3.3 Governing Equations 8.3.4 Governing Equations for Confined Aquifers 8.3.5 Governing Equations for Unconfined Aquifers 8.3.6 Well Hydraulics 8.3.7 Recharge and Groundwater Runoff 8.3.8 Stream-Aquifer Interaction 8.4 Summary 8.5 Questions 8.6 References 9 Water Quality 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Sources of Contaminants 9.3 Quality of Water 9.4 Chemical Contaminants 9.5 Surface Water Quality 9.6 Subsurface Water Quality 9.7 Characteristics of Water Quality 9.7.1 Units of Measurement 9.7.2 Chemical Relationships 9.7.3 Physical Characteristics 9.7.4 Chemical Characteristics 9.7.5 Biological Characteristics 9.8 Analytical Concepts 9.8.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 9.8.2 Nitrification 9.8.3 Denitrification 9.8.4 Oxygen Depletion 9.8.5 Reoxygenation Coefficient 9.8.6 Deoxygenation Coefficient 9.9 Nonpoint Source Pollution 9.9.1 Pollutants in Urban Runoff 9.9.2 Pollutants in Agricultural Runoff 9.9.3 Pollution in Subsurface Waters 9.10 Water Quality Management 9.11 Summary 9.12 Questions 9.13 References Part 3 Measurements 10 Hydrologic Data Observation Networks 10.1 Hydrometeorological Data Networks 10.1.1 Types of Hydrometeorological Networks 10.1.2 Steps in Network Design 10.1.3 Assessment of Data Needs 10.2 Integration of Networks 10.3 Precipitation Data Networks 10.3.1 Design of Optimal Rain Gauge Network 10.3.2 Cv-Based Technique 10.3.3 Location of Rain Gauge Stations 10.4 Networks for Other Hydrometeorological Data 10.5 River Gauging Networks 10.5.1 Design of River Gauging Networks 10.5.2 Evaluation of Networks 10.5.3 Site Selection Surveys 10.5.4 Hydraulic Engineering for Selection of Sites for River Gauging Stations 10.5.5 General Considerations About River Gauging Networks 10.6 Groundwater Monitoring Networks 10.7 Water Quality and Sediment Measuring Stations 10.8 International Standards for Hydrometry 10.9 Reference Climate and Water Data Networks 10.9.1 Global Climate Networks 10.9.2 Country-Level Networks 10.9.3 U.S. Climate Reference Network 10.9.4 Reference Climatological Stations in the United Kingdom 10.10 Recent Advances in Hydrometry 10.11 Summary 10.12 Questions 10.13 References 11 Streamflow Measurement 11.1 River Stage and Discharge 11.1.1 Station Control 11.2 Measurement of River Stages 11.2.1 Manual Means to Measure River Stages 11.2.2 Direct Depth Sounding 11.2.3 Water Level Recorder 11.2.4 Radar Water Level Measurement 11.3 Measurement of Discharge 11.3.1 Direct Determination of Discharge 11.3.2 Velocity-Area Methods 11.3.3 Measurement of Velocity 11.3.4 Moving Boat Method 11.4 Computation of Discharge 11.4.1 Indirect Methods of Discharge Determination 11.4.2 Estimation of Discharge by the Slope-Area Method 11.5 Estimation of Discharge by Using Artificial Structures 11.6 Advanced Discharge Measurement Techniques 11.6.1 Dilution Methods for Measuring Discharge 11.6.2 Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler 11.7 Streamflow Measurement Under Difficult Conditions 11.8 Stage-Discharge Rating Relationship 11.8.1 Simple Rating Curve 11.8.2 Compound Rating Curve 11.8.3 Hysteresis in Rating Curves 11.8.4 Extrapolation of Rating Curves 11.9 New Techniques for Development of Stage-Discharge Relation 11.9.1 Entropy 11.9.2 Uncertainty in Rating Curves 11.10 Summary 11.11 Questions 11.12 References 12 Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems 12.1 Remote Sensing 12.1.1 Components of a Remote Sensing System 12.1.2 Remote Sensing Sensors 12.1.3 Resolution of Remote Sensing Data 12.1.4 Reflectance Characteristics of Earth Features 12.1.5 Remote Sensing Platforms 12.2 Remote Sensing Data Analysis 12.2.1 Steps in Digital Image Processing 12.2.2 Spectral Indices 12.2.3 Change Detection 12.3 Selected Space Programs 12.4 Geographic Information Systems 12.4.1 Geographic Data Types 12.4.2 GIS Data Structure 12.4.3 Geographic Coordinate Systems 12.5 GIS-Based Analysis of Spatial Data 12.5.1 Digital Elevation Model 12.5.2 Analysis of Geographic Data Using a GIS 12.6 Applications of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems to Water Resources Problems 12.7 Summary 12.8 Questions 12.9 References Part 4 Analysis and Modeling 13 Rainfall-Runoff Modeling 13.1 Computation of Hydrograph Volume 13.1.1 Regression Method 13.1.2 Simple Linear Regression 13.1.3 Nonlinear Regression 13.1.4 Multiple Regression 13.1.5 Stepwise Regression 13.2 Soil Conservation Service–Curve Number Method 13.2.1 Curve Number Estimation 13.2.2 SCS Land Cover Complex Classification 13.2.3 SCS Soil Group Classification 13.2.4 Antecedent Soil Moisture Condition 13.2.5 Major Strengths and Weaknesses of SCS-CN Methodology 13.3 Estimation of Peak Discharge 13.3.1 Rational Formula 13.3.2 Peak Discharge–Volume Relation 13.4 Rainfall-Runoff Relationship for Different Durations 13.4.1 Daily Rainfall-Runoff Relationship 13.4.2 Monthly Rainfall-Runoff Relationships (Rain-Fed Catchments) 13.4.3 Regression Models for Seasonal Rivers 13.4.4 Filling in Missing Data 13.4.5 Comments on Regression 13.5 Models for Estimating a Hydrograph 13.6 Soil Erosion and Sediment Yield 13.7 Snowmelt Runoff Modeling 13.7.1 Temperature Index Method 13.7.2 Energy Balance 13.8 Summary 13.9 Questions 13.10 References 14 Unit Hydrograph Models 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Factors Affecting Unit Hydrograph Shape 14.3 Derivation of a Unit Hydrograph 14.3.1 Using Data of a Single-Peak Storm 14.3.2 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph from Data of Multiperiod Storm 14.4 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 14.4.1 S-Curve Hydrograph 14.5 Change of Unit Period of Unit Hydrograph 14.5.1 Superimposition Method 14.5.2 S-Curve Method 14.5.3 Relation Between S-Curve and Unit Hydrograph 14.6 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 14.6.1 The Snyder Method 14.6.2 Soil Conservation Service Dimensionless Hydrograph 14.7 Conceptual Models of UH Derivation 14.7.1 Linear Reservoir Concept 14.7.2 Nash Model 14.7.3 Dooge Model 14.7.4 Geomorphological Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 14.8 Summary 14.9 Questions 14.10 References 15 Flow Routing 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Muskingum Method of Channel Routing 15.2.1 Parameter Estimation and Interpretation 15.2.2 Routing Procedure 15.2.3 Accounting for Lateral Inflow 15.3 The Saint-Venant Equations 15.3.1 Solution of Saint-Venant Equations 15.3.2 Implicit Methods of Solving Saint-Venant Equations 15.3.3 Kinematic Wave Modeling 15.3.4 Application of KW Theory 15.3.5 Diffusion Waves 15.4 Muskingum-Cunge Method 15.4.1 Estimation of Muskingum-Cunge Parameters 15.4.2 Flood Routing by the Muskingum-Cunge Method 15.4.3 Advantages and Limitations of the Muskingum-Cunge Method 15.5 Muskingum Method and Diffusion Wave Approximation 15.5.1 Kinematic Wave Approximation and Muskingum Method 15.5.2 Another Kinematic Approximation Through Numerical Integration 15.5.3 Diffusion Wave Approximation 15.6 Reservoir Routing 15.6.1 Reservoir Routing Techniques 15.6.2 Modified Puls Method 15.6.3 Mass Curve Method 15.6.4 Reservoir Routing with Controlled Outflow 15.6.5 Major Applications of Storage Routing 15.6.6 General Observations on Reservoir Routing 15.7 Summary 15.8 Questions 15.9 References 16 Pollutant Modeling 16.1 Elements of Transport Process 16.1.1 Advection 16.1.2 Dispersion and Diffusion 16.1.3 Adsorption and Desorption 16.1.4 Growth and Decay 16.1.5 Volatilization 16.1.6 Dissolution-Precipitation 16.2 Transformation of Pollutants in the Environment 16.3 Elements of Pollutant Modeling 16.4 Pollutant Transport in Urban Watersheds 16.5 Pollutant Transport in Agricultural Runoff 16.6 Pollutant Transport in Streams 16.7 Pollutant Transport in Unsaturated Flow 16.8 Pollutant Transport in Groundwater 16.9 Numerical Solution of Convective (or Kinematic Wave) Approximation 16.10 Another Numerical Solution of Convective (Kinematic Wave) Approximation 16.11 Solution by Numerical Integration 16.12 Modeling of Dissolved Oxygen in Streams 16.12.1 Model Formulation 16.12.2 Numerical Solution 16.13 Summary 16.14 Questions 16.15 References 17 Environmental Flows 17.1 Ecohydrology 17.1.1 River Health 17.1.2 River Health Assessment Tools 17.2 Trade-Off Between Development and Conservation 17.3 Environmental Flows 17.3.1 Definition of Environmental Flows 17.3.2 Typical Stages of an Environmental Flow Assessment 17.3.3 Objectives and Factors Governing Environmental Flows 17.3.4 Locations and Reasons for Estimation of Environmental Flows 17.4 Methodologies to Assess Environmental Flow Requirements 17.4.1 Hydrological Methods 17.4.2 Range of Variability Approach 17.4.3 Hydrology- and Hydraulics-Based Methods 17.4.4 Hydraulic Rating Methods 17.4.5 Hydrobiology Methods 17.4.6 Building Block Methodology 17.4.7 Ecological Limits of Hydrologic Alteration 17.4.8 Habitat Simulation Methods 17.4.9 Methodology for Environmental Flow Assessment 17.4.10 Sediment Aspects 17.5 Implementation of Environmental Flows 17.6 Summary 17.7 Questions 17.8 References Part 5 Hydrologic Design 18 Statistical Analysis of Hydrological Data 18.1 Basic Concepts 18.1.1 Probability 18.1.2 Properties of a Random Variable 18.1.3 Outliers 18.2 Key Statistical Measures of Data 18.2.1 Central Tendency 18.2.2 Measure of Dispersion or Spread 18.2.3 Measures of Symmetry 18.3 Graphical Presentation of Data 18.3.1 Box Plots 18.3.2 Quantiles 18.3.3 Quartiles 18.3.4 Return Period 18.4 Probability Distributions 18.4.1 Normal or Gaussian Distribution 18.4.2 Log-Normal Distribution 18.4.3 Extreme Value Type 1 Distribution 18.4.4 Gamma Distribution 18.4.5 Log Pearson Type III Distribution 18.4.6 Discrete Probability Distributions 18.4.7 Binomial Distribution 18.5 Point and Interval Estimates 18.5.1 Confidence Intervals for the Mean 18.5.2 Standard Error 18.6 Parameter Estimation Methods 18.6.1 Method of Moments 18.6.2 Method of Moments for Discrete Systems 18.6.3 Method of Maximum Likelihood 18.6.4 Method of Least Squares 18.6.5 Method of L-Moments 18.6.6 Bias in Parameter Estimation 18.7 Summary 18.8 Questions 18.9 References 19 Correlation, Regression, Hypothesis, and Trend Analysis 19.1 Covariance and Correlation 19.1.1 Serial Correlation or Autocorrelation 19.1.2 Cross-Correlation 19.1.3 Inferences on Correlation Coefficients 19.1.4 Kendall’s Correlation Coefficient 19.2 Regression 19.3 Simple Linear Regression 19.3.1 Estimation of Regression Parameters 19.3.2 Goodness of Regression 19.3.3 Extrapolation 19.3.4 Nonlinear Regression 19.4 Multiple Linear Regression 19.4.1 Estimation of Multiple Regression Coefficients 19.4.2 Stepwise Regression 19.4.3 Regression After Transforming Data 19.4.4 Comments on Multiple Regression 19.5 Hypothesis Testing 19.5.1 Test Statistic 19.5.2 Significance Level 19.6 Probability Functions for Hypothesis Testing 19.6.1 Normal Distribution 19.6.2 Student’s t‑Distribution 19.6.3 Test Concerning Population Mean 19.6.4 F‑Distribution 19.6.5 Tests Concerning Variances of Two Populations 19.7 Trend Analysis 19.7.1 Magnitude of Trend 19.7.2 Significance of Trend: Mann-Kendall Test 19.8 Summary 19.9 Questions 19.10 References 20 Hydrologic Modeling 20.1 History of Hydrologic Modeling 20.2 Types of Hydrologic Models 20.2.1 Black-Box Models 20.2.2 Lumped Conceptual Models 20.2.3 Fully Distributed, Physically Based Models 20.2.4 Advantages and Limitations of Physically Based Distributed Models 20.2.5 Statistical Models 20.3 Model Calibration and Validation 20.3.1 Objective Function and Measures of Model Performance 20.3.2 Manual Calibration 20.3.3 Automatic Calibration 20.4 Optimization Methods for Calibration of Hydrologic Models 20.4.1 Local Search Methods 20.4.2 Global Search Methods 20.5 Model Validation 20.5.1 Calibration Data 20.5.2 Equifinality of Parameters 20.5.3 Sensitivity Analysis 20.6 Uncertainty in Model Calibration 20.7 Summary 20.8 Questions 20.9 References 21 Design Storm and Design Flood Estimation 21.1 Design Flood Estimation 21.2 Approaches to Design Flood Estimation 21.3 Design Storm 21.3.1 Design Storm Selection 21.3.2 Design Storm Duration 21.3.3 Depth-Duration Analysis 21.4 Depth-Area-Duration Analysis 21.4.1 Rainfall Intensity–Duration–Frequency Analysis 21.5 Storm Transposition 21.6 Maximization of Selected Storms 21.7 Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation 21.8 An Illustrative Example for Design Flood Estimation 21.9 Summary 21.10 Questions 21.11 References 22 Climate Change and Its Impact on Water Resources 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Causes of Climate Change 22.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 22.2.2 Evidence of Climate Change 22.3 Simulation of Behavior of the Climate System 22.3.1 Global Climate Models 22.3.2 Coupled Model Systems 22.4 Methodology to Study Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources 22.4.1 Scenarios and Their Purpose 22.4.2 Representative Concentration Pathways 22.5 Downscaling Climate Data 22.5.1 Dynamical Downscaling 22.5.2 Statistical (or Empirical) Downscaling 22.5.3 Transfer Function–Based Methods 22.5.4 Weather Generators 22.5.5 Weather Typing 22.5.6 Predictors and Predictands in Statistical Downscaling 22.6 Climate Change: Adaptation and Mitigation 22.6.1 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies 22.6.2 Land-Use Management 22.6.3 Afforestation and Reforestation 22.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources 22.7.1 Impacts on Surface Water and Groundwater 22.7.2 Adaptation Needed in the Water Sector 22.8 Summary 22.9 Questions 22.10 References Index