JOAN A. REID, PHD, LMHC is Professor of Criminology and Director of the University of South Florida Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Risk to Resilience Research Lab. Dr. Reid has authored more than 70 publications primarily focused on the sex trafficking of girls and boys in the United States. She has appeared as a citing authority in human trafficking cases in various State Supreme Courts and an amicus brief related to the U.S. Supreme Court case Jane Doe vs. Backpage. As a licensed mental health counselor, Reid provides psychotherapy to rape, sexual abuse, and sex trafficking survivors.

• Foreword xiPreface xiiiAbout the Author xvNotes on Contributors xvii1 Introduction to Trauma Bonding 1Joan A. ReidBook Overview 1A Survivor’s Voice 2Terminology and Contexts 4Outline of the Following Chapters 5References 92 General Theories of Trauma Bonding 11Joan A. Reid and Sarah M. GardyOverview 11Reports from Survivors and Practitioners 12Psychological Theories of Trauma Bonding 13Attachment Theory and Trauma Bonding Theory 13Cognitive Theory and Trauma Bonding 15Evolutionary Theory and Trauma Bonding 16Neurobiological Theories of Trauma Bonding 17Conclusion 19Suggestions for Further Reading 19Discussion Questions 20References 203 Measures of Trauma Bonding 23Joan A. ReidIntroduction 23Purpose of Psychological Measures and Screening Tools 24Best Practices for Measure Development 25Benefits of Trauma Bonding Measures 27Validation of Available Measures of Trauma Bonding 28The Stockholm Syndrome Scale 28Index of Post-Traumatic Stress 31Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 32Conclusion 32Suggestions for Further Reading 33Discussion Questions 33References 344 Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 37Joan A. ReidIntroduction 37Case Studies 39Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence 39What Is Intimate Partner Violence 39The Function of Abuse in the Formation of Trauma Bonds 44Review of Theoretical Concepts Related to IPV and Trauma Bonding 45Review of Research Studies Investigating Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 47Conclusion 49Suggestions for Further Reading 49Discussion Questions 50References 505 Trauma Bonding and Childhood Sexual Abuse 55Klejdis Bilali and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 55Voices from the Field 56Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Child Sexual Abuse 57What Is Child Sexual Abuse? 57Formation of Trauma Bonds in CSA Contexts 58Unique Vulnerabilities of Children to Trauma Bonds 58Child Sexual Grooming and Trauma Bonding 60Intrafamilial versus Extrafamilial CSA and Trauma Bonds 61Trauma Bonding and Intrafamilial CSA 62Trauma Bonding and Extrafamilial CSA 64Theoretical Conceptualizations of Trauma Bonding in the Context of CSA 67Attachment Theory 67Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome (CSAAS) 69Gaps in Research 72Conclusion 73Suggestions for Further Reading 74Discussion Questions 74References 756 Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 81Joan A. ReidIntroduction 81Case Study 83Subject Data 83Exposure to Violence and Sexual Assault During Childhood 83Coerced into Selling Sex 84Batterer–Trafficker Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 84Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 85Case Summary 86Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Human Trafficking 86Trauma Bonding among Child and Adolescent Victims of Sex Trafficking 86Childhood and Developmental Vulnerabilities Linked to Human Trafficking 86Conditions of Trauma Bonding and Child Victims of Sex Trafficking 87Trauma Bonding and Adult Victims of Sex Trafficking 89Varied Pathways into Sex Trafficking for Adults 89Legislative Barriers for Adult Victims of Human Trafficking 90Complexities of Identifying Trauma Bonds in the Context of Adult Sex Trafficking 91Trauma Bonds and Additional Forms of Human Trafficking 92Conclusion 93Suggestions for Further Reading 93Discussion Questions 94References 947 Trauma Bonding and Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 99Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 99Case Study: Elizabeth Smart 100Origins of the Term “Stockholm Syndrome” 101Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 103Elements and Conditions of Trauma Bonding in Kidnapping/ Hostage-Taking 103Victim Characteristics and Trauma Bonding 105Perpetrator Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 107Authority Response 109Unraveling a Trauma Bond 111Conclusion 114Suggestions for Further Reading and Viewing 115Discussion Questions 115References 1168 Trauma Bonding and Cults 121Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 121Case Study: NXIVM 129Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Cults 130Unraveling Trauma Bonds Following Cult Exit 134Conclusion 136Suggestions for Further Reading, Viewing, and Listening 137Discussion Questions 137References 1389 Trauma Bonding Among Gangs and Terrorist Groups 141Sarah M. Gardy and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 141Case Study 142Subject Data 142History of Loss and Abandonment 142Coerced into Selling Sex 142Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 143Case Summary 144The Formation of Trauma Bonds in Criminal Gangs 144Gang Grooming and Trauma Bonding 145Terror Groups and Trauma Bonding 146Theory of Trauma Bonding Among Criminal Groups 147Complexities of Trauma Bonding and Rehabilitation 148Conclusion 150Suggestions for Further Reading 151Discussion Questions 151References 15210 Treatment Challenges Related to Trauma Bonding 157Joan A. ReidIntroduction 157Case Study 158Case Presentation 158Treatment Progress 159Case Closure and Summary 159Consequences of Interpersonal Violence 160Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Disorders 160Interpersonal Violence and Physical Injuries 162Comorbidity and Diagnostic Overshadowing 163Treatment Complexities Related to Trauma Bonding 164Victim Identification 164Concerns Regarding “Victim” Labeling 167Separating from the Abuser 167Client Safety and Self-Determination 168Trauma-Informed Treatment Recommendations 169Recommended Treatment Modalities 169Trauma-Informed Practices for Trauma Bonding 170Conclusion 171Suggestions for Further Reading 172Discussion Questions 173References 17311 Trauma Bonding and the Law 179Emily D. Walker and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 179Case Study: Patty Hearst 180Subject Data 180Background of the Case 180Evidence of Trauma Bonding 181Outcome of Case 181Review of Case Law and Legislation Governing Expert Witness Testimony 181The Frye Standard 182The Daubert Standard 182Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael 183Federal Rules of Evidence 183Current Use of Trauma Bonding in the Legal System 184Trauma Bonding and Defense of Victim–Defendants 185Trauma Bonding and Prosecution of Offenders 186Trauma Bonding and Child Abuse Cases 187Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 188Barriers to the Use of Trauma Bonding as a Legal Strategy 188Potential Applications of Trauma Bonding within the Legal System 190Gaps in Research 191Conclusion 192Suggestions for Further Reading 192Discussion Questions 193References 19312 A Way Forward 197Joan A. ReidAuthor Postlude 197A Way-Forward SWOT Analysis 198Results of the SWOT Analysis 199Strengths 199Weaknesses 202Opportunities 203Threats 203Conclusion 204References 205Index 209

JOAN A. REID, PHD, LMHC is Professor of Criminology and Director of the University of South Florida Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Risk to Resilience Research Lab. Dr. Reid has authored more than 70 publications primarily focused on the sex trafficking of girls and boys in the United States. She has appeared as a citing authority in human trafficking cases in various State Supreme Courts and an amicus brief related to the U.S. Supreme Court case Jane Doe vs. Backpage. As a licensed mental health counselor, Reid provides psychotherapy to rape, sexual abuse, and sex trafficking survivors.

• Foreword xiPreface xiiiAbout the Author xvNotes on Contributors xvii1 Introduction to Trauma Bonding 1Joan A. ReidBook Overview 1A Survivor’s Voice 2Terminology and Contexts 4Outline of the Following Chapters 5References 92 General Theories of Trauma Bonding 11Joan A. Reid and Sarah M. GardyOverview 11Reports from Survivors and Practitioners 12Psychological Theories of Trauma Bonding 13Attachment Theory and Trauma Bonding Theory 13Cognitive Theory and Trauma Bonding 15Evolutionary Theory and Trauma Bonding 16Neurobiological Theories of Trauma Bonding 17Conclusion 19Suggestions for Further Reading 19Discussion Questions 20References 203 Measures of Trauma Bonding 23Joan A. ReidIntroduction 23Purpose of Psychological Measures and Screening Tools 24Best Practices for Measure Development 25Benefits of Trauma Bonding Measures 27Validation of Available Measures of Trauma Bonding 28The Stockholm Syndrome Scale 28Index of Post-Traumatic Stress 31Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 32Conclusion 32Suggestions for Further Reading 33Discussion Questions 33References 344 Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 37Joan A. ReidIntroduction 37Case Studies 39Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence 39What Is Intimate Partner Violence 39The Function of Abuse in the Formation of Trauma Bonds 44Review of Theoretical Concepts Related to IPV and Trauma Bonding 45Review of Research Studies Investigating Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 47Conclusion 49Suggestions for Further Reading 49Discussion Questions 50References 505 Trauma Bonding and Childhood Sexual Abuse 55Klejdis Bilali and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 55Voices from the Field 56Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Child Sexual Abuse 57What Is Child Sexual Abuse? 57Formation of Trauma Bonds in CSA Contexts 58Unique Vulnerabilities of Children to Trauma Bonds 58Child Sexual Grooming and Trauma Bonding 60Intrafamilial versus Extrafamilial CSA and Trauma Bonds 61Trauma Bonding and Intrafamilial CSA 62Trauma Bonding and Extrafamilial CSA 64Theoretical Conceptualizations of Trauma Bonding in the Context of CSA 67Attachment Theory 67Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome (CSAAS) 69Gaps in Research 72Conclusion 73Suggestions for Further Reading 74Discussion Questions 74References 756 Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 81Joan A. ReidIntroduction 81Case Study 83Subject Data 83Exposure to Violence and Sexual Assault During Childhood 83Coerced into Selling Sex 84Batterer–Trafficker Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 84Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 85Case Summary 86Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Human Trafficking 86Trauma Bonding among Child and Adolescent Victims of Sex Trafficking 86Childhood and Developmental Vulnerabilities Linked to Human Trafficking 86Conditions of Trauma Bonding and Child Victims of Sex Trafficking 87Trauma Bonding and Adult Victims of Sex Trafficking 89Varied Pathways into Sex Trafficking for Adults 89Legislative Barriers for Adult Victims of Human Trafficking 90Complexities of Identifying Trauma Bonds in the Context of Adult Sex Trafficking 91Trauma Bonds and Additional Forms of Human Trafficking 92Conclusion 93Suggestions for Further Reading 93Discussion Questions 94References 947 Trauma Bonding and Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 99Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 99Case Study: Elizabeth Smart 100Origins of the Term “Stockholm Syndrome” 101Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 103Elements and Conditions of Trauma Bonding in Kidnapping/ Hostage-Taking 103Victim Characteristics and Trauma Bonding 105Perpetrator Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 107Authority Response 109Unraveling a Trauma Bond 111Conclusion 114Suggestions for Further Reading and Viewing 115Discussion Questions 115References 1168 Trauma Bonding and Cults 121Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 121Case Study: NXIVM 129Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Cults 130Unraveling Trauma Bonds Following Cult Exit 134Conclusion 136Suggestions for Further Reading, Viewing, and Listening 137Discussion Questions 137References 1389 Trauma Bonding Among Gangs and Terrorist Groups 141Sarah M. Gardy and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 141Case Study 142Subject Data 142History of Loss and Abandonment 142Coerced into Selling Sex 142Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 143Case Summary 144The Formation of Trauma Bonds in Criminal Gangs 144Gang Grooming and Trauma Bonding 145Terror Groups and Trauma Bonding 146Theory of Trauma Bonding Among Criminal Groups 147Complexities of Trauma Bonding and Rehabilitation 148Conclusion 150Suggestions for Further Reading 151Discussion Questions 151References 15210 Treatment Challenges Related to Trauma Bonding 157Joan A. ReidIntroduction 157Case Study 158Case Presentation 158Treatment Progress 159Case Closure and Summary 159Consequences of Interpersonal Violence 160Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Disorders 160Interpersonal Violence and Physical Injuries 162Comorbidity and Diagnostic Overshadowing 163Treatment Complexities Related to Trauma Bonding 164Victim Identification 164Concerns Regarding “Victim” Labeling 167Separating from the Abuser 167Client Safety and Self-Determination 168Trauma-Informed Treatment Recommendations 169Recommended Treatment Modalities 169Trauma-Informed Practices for Trauma Bonding 170Conclusion 171Suggestions for Further Reading 172Discussion Questions 173References 17311 Trauma Bonding and the Law 179Emily D. Walker and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 179Case Study: Patty Hearst 180Subject Data 180Background of the Case 180Evidence of Trauma Bonding 181Outcome of Case 181Review of Case Law and Legislation Governing Expert Witness Testimony 181The Frye Standard 182The Daubert Standard 182Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael 183Federal Rules of Evidence 183Current Use of Trauma Bonding in the Legal System 184Trauma Bonding and Defense of Victim–Defendants 185Trauma Bonding and Prosecution of Offenders 186Trauma Bonding and Child Abuse Cases 187Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 188Barriers to the Use of Trauma Bonding as a Legal Strategy 188Potential Applications of Trauma Bonding within the Legal System 190Gaps in Research 191Conclusion 192Suggestions for Further Reading 192Discussion Questions 193References 19312 A Way Forward 197Joan A. ReidAuthor Postlude 197A Way-Forward SWOT Analysis 198Results of the SWOT Analysis 199Strengths 199Weaknesses 202Opportunities 203Threats 203Conclusion 204References 205Index 209

JOAN A. REID, PHD, LMHC is Professor of Criminology and Director of the University of South Florida Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Risk to Resilience Research Lab. Dr. Reid has authored more than 70 publications primarily focused on the sex trafficking of girls and boys in the United States. She has appeared as a citing authority in human trafficking cases in various State Supreme Courts and an amicus brief related to the U.S. Supreme Court case Jane Doe vs. Backpage. As a licensed mental health counselor, Reid provides psychotherapy to rape, sexual abuse, and sex trafficking survivors.

• Foreword xiPreface xiiiAbout the Author xvNotes on Contributors xvii1 Introduction to Trauma Bonding 1Joan A. ReidBook Overview 1A Survivor’s Voice 2Terminology and Contexts 4Outline of the Following Chapters 5References 92 General Theories of Trauma Bonding 11Joan A. Reid and Sarah M. GardyOverview 11Reports from Survivors and Practitioners 12Psychological Theories of Trauma Bonding 13Attachment Theory and Trauma Bonding Theory 13Cognitive Theory and Trauma Bonding 15Evolutionary Theory and Trauma Bonding 16Neurobiological Theories of Trauma Bonding 17Conclusion 19Suggestions for Further Reading 19Discussion Questions 20References 203 Measures of Trauma Bonding 23Joan A. ReidIntroduction 23Purpose of Psychological Measures and Screening Tools 24Best Practices for Measure Development 25Benefits of Trauma Bonding Measures 27Validation of Available Measures of Trauma Bonding 28The Stockholm Syndrome Scale 28Index of Post-Traumatic Stress 31Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 32Conclusion 32Suggestions for Further Reading 33Discussion Questions 33References 344 Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 37Joan A. ReidIntroduction 37Case Studies 39Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence 39What Is Intimate Partner Violence 39The Function of Abuse in the Formation of Trauma Bonds 44Review of Theoretical Concepts Related to IPV and Trauma Bonding 45Review of Research Studies Investigating Trauma Bonding and Intimate Partner Violence 47Conclusion 49Suggestions for Further Reading 49Discussion Questions 50References 505 Trauma Bonding and Childhood Sexual Abuse 55Klejdis Bilali and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 55Voices from the Field 56Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Child Sexual Abuse 57What Is Child Sexual Abuse? 57Formation of Trauma Bonds in CSA Contexts 58Unique Vulnerabilities of Children to Trauma Bonds 58Child Sexual Grooming and Trauma Bonding 60Intrafamilial versus Extrafamilial CSA and Trauma Bonds 61Trauma Bonding and Intrafamilial CSA 62Trauma Bonding and Extrafamilial CSA 64Theoretical Conceptualizations of Trauma Bonding in the Context of CSA 67Attachment Theory 67Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome (CSAAS) 69Gaps in Research 72Conclusion 73Suggestions for Further Reading 74Discussion Questions 74References 756 Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 81Joan A. ReidIntroduction 81Case Study 83Subject Data 83Exposure to Violence and Sexual Assault During Childhood 83Coerced into Selling Sex 84Batterer–Trafficker Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 84Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 85Case Summary 86Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Human Trafficking 86Trauma Bonding among Child and Adolescent Victims of Sex Trafficking 86Childhood and Developmental Vulnerabilities Linked to Human Trafficking 86Conditions of Trauma Bonding and Child Victims of Sex Trafficking 87Trauma Bonding and Adult Victims of Sex Trafficking 89Varied Pathways into Sex Trafficking for Adults 89Legislative Barriers for Adult Victims of Human Trafficking 90Complexities of Identifying Trauma Bonds in the Context of Adult Sex Trafficking 91Trauma Bonds and Additional Forms of Human Trafficking 92Conclusion 93Suggestions for Further Reading 93Discussion Questions 94References 947 Trauma Bonding and Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 99Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 99Case Study: Elizabeth Smart 100Origins of the Term “Stockholm Syndrome” 101Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Hostage-Taking/Kidnapping 103Elements and Conditions of Trauma Bonding in Kidnapping/ Hostage-Taking 103Victim Characteristics and Trauma Bonding 105Perpetrator Tactics Related to Trauma Bonding 107Authority Response 109Unraveling a Trauma Bond 111Conclusion 114Suggestions for Further Reading and Viewing 115Discussion Questions 115References 1168 Trauma Bonding and Cults 121Klejdis Bilali, Emily D. Walker, and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 121Case Study: NXIVM 129Formation of Trauma Bonds in the Context of Cults 130Unraveling Trauma Bonds Following Cult Exit 134Conclusion 136Suggestions for Further Reading, Viewing, and Listening 137Discussion Questions 137References 1389 Trauma Bonding Among Gangs and Terrorist Groups 141Sarah M. Gardy and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 141Case Study 142Subject Data 142History of Loss and Abandonment 142Coerced into Selling Sex 142Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction 143Case Summary 144The Formation of Trauma Bonds in Criminal Gangs 144Gang Grooming and Trauma Bonding 145Terror Groups and Trauma Bonding 146Theory of Trauma Bonding Among Criminal Groups 147Complexities of Trauma Bonding and Rehabilitation 148Conclusion 150Suggestions for Further Reading 151Discussion Questions 151References 15210 Treatment Challenges Related to Trauma Bonding 157Joan A. ReidIntroduction 157Case Study 158Case Presentation 158Treatment Progress 159Case Closure and Summary 159Consequences of Interpersonal Violence 160Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Disorders 160Interpersonal Violence and Physical Injuries 162Comorbidity and Diagnostic Overshadowing 163Treatment Complexities Related to Trauma Bonding 164Victim Identification 164Concerns Regarding “Victim” Labeling 167Separating from the Abuser 167Client Safety and Self-Determination 168Trauma-Informed Treatment Recommendations 169Recommended Treatment Modalities 169Trauma-Informed Practices for Trauma Bonding 170Conclusion 171Suggestions for Further Reading 172Discussion Questions 173References 17311 Trauma Bonding and the Law 179Emily D. Walker and Joan A. ReidIntroduction 179Case Study: Patty Hearst 180Subject Data 180Background of the Case 180Evidence of Trauma Bonding 181Outcome of Case 181Review of Case Law and Legislation Governing Expert Witness Testimony 181The Frye Standard 182The Daubert Standard 182Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael 183Federal Rules of Evidence 183Current Use of Trauma Bonding in the Legal System 184Trauma Bonding and Defense of Victim–Defendants 185Trauma Bonding and Prosecution of Offenders 186Trauma Bonding and Child Abuse Cases 187Trauma Bonding and Human Trafficking 188Barriers to the Use of Trauma Bonding as a Legal Strategy 188Potential Applications of Trauma Bonding within the Legal System 190Gaps in Research 191Conclusion 192Suggestions for Further Reading 192Discussion Questions 193References 19312 A Way Forward 197Joan A. ReidAuthor Postlude 197A Way-Forward SWOT Analysis 198Results of the SWOT Analysis 199Strengths 199Weaknesses 202Opportunities 203Threats 203Conclusion 204References 205Index 209