Principles of Combustion

Allan T. Kirkpatrick is an Emeritus Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Colorado State University, where he developed and taught a wide variety of courses in the thermal science areas. As an internationally recognized authority in the applied thermal-fluid sciences, Dr. Kirkpatrick has published four books and more than 100 publications on internal combustion engines, emissions, combustion instability, fluid jets, and engineering education. Kenneth K. Kuo was a Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Director of the High Pressure Combustion Laboratory (HPCL) in the Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University. The author of three books, Professor Kuo was widely recognized as a leading researcher and expert in propulsion-related combustion.

• About the Authors xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgments xviiAbout the Companion Website xix1 Introduction to Combustion 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Combustion Applications 21.3 Organization of Text 21.4 Solution Methods for Combustion Problems 31.5 Fuels Background 41.6 Hydrocarbon Fuel Chemistry 51.7 Gaseous and Liquid Fuels for Combustion Engines 91.8 Fuels for Rocket Engines 201.9 Solid Fuels 211.10 Additional Reading 23References 24Homework Problems 242 Chemical Thermodynamics 272.1 Introduction 272.2 Properties of Gas Mixtures 282.3 Liquid–Vapor–Gas Mixtures 352.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 402.5 Relationship Between Bond Energy and Enthalpy of Formation 412.6 Fugacity and Real-Gas Equations of State 442.7 Conservation of Mass 482.8 The First Law of Thermodynamics 502.9 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 512.10 Stoichiometric Chemical Reactions 552.11 Mixture Fraction f 582.12 First Law Analysis of Combustion 612.13 Second Law Analysis of Cyclic Engines 672.14 Equilibrium Constant K p 712.15 Chemical Equilibrium Using Lagrange Multipliers 742.16 Chemical Equilibrium Using Equilibrium Constants 782.17 Thermodynamic Properties of Combustion Products 82References 84Homework Problems 843 Chemical Kinetics 873.1 Introduction 873.2 Rates of Reaction and Their Functional Dependence 873.3 One-Step Chemical Reactions of Various Orders 1013.4 Chain Reactions 1103.5 Chain-Branching Reactions and Explosions 1113.6 Pressure Dependence of Rate Coefficients 1153.7 Surface Reactions 1173.8 Surface Reaction Kinetics 1223.9 Experimental Methods for Measurement of Gas-Phase Reaction Rates 1283.10 Experimental Methods to Study Surface Reactions 136References 138Homework Problems 1404 Reaction Mechanisms 1434.1 Introduction 1434.2 Multiple Reactions 1434.3 Steady-State Approximation 1444.4 Partial Equilibrium 1444.5 Hydrogen H 2 Reaction Mechanisms 1454.6 Ammonia NH 3 Reaction Mechanisms 1484.7 Hydrocarbon Reaction Mechanisms 1494.8 Additional Hydrocarbon Reaction Mechanisms 1564.9 Reduced Mechanism of Hydrocarbon Combustion 1644.10 Chemical Mechanism Reduction 1694.11 Sensitivity Analysis 1714.12 Reaction Flow Analysis 1784.13 Computational Singular Perturbation (CSP) 181References 183Homework Problems 1855 Transport Processes 1895.1 Introduction 1895.2 Definitions of Concentrations, Velocities, and Mass Fluxes 1905.3 Fick’s Law of Diffusion 1925.4 Dimensionless Ratios of Transport Coefficients 1935.5 Theory of Mass Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 1935.6 Continuity Equation and Species Mass Conservation Equations 1955.7 Conservation of Momentum 1985.8 Conservation of Energy 2075.9 Physical Derivation of the Multicomponent Diffusion Equation 2105.10 Shvab–Zel’dovich Formulation 2145.11 Boundary Conditions at an Interface 2185.12 Turbulent Flow Fields 2275.13 Turbulent Length, Velocity, and Time Scales 2305.14 Reynolds and Favre Averaging 2355.15 Turbulence Modeling 2375.16 Probability Density Function (PDF) Models 2425.17 Further Reading 247References 247Homework Problems 2476 Premixed Flames 2516.1 Introduction 2516.2 Laminar Flame Speed Modeling 2526.3 Zeldovich, Frank-Kamenetsky, and Semenov Flame Model 2556.4 Diagnostic Methods for Flame Speed and Structure 2616.5 Laminar Flame Speeds of Hydrocarbon/Air Mixtures 2676.6 Numerical Analysis of Laminar-Flame Problems 2716.7 Stretched Laminar Premixed Flames 2756.8 Stabilization of Combustion Flames in Laminar Flows 2886.9 Ignition 2926.10 Flame Quenching 2956.11 Flammability Limits of Premixed Laminar Flames 2986.12 Turbulent Flame Propagation 3006.13 Example: Turbulent Flame Propagation in a Spark Ignition Engine 3046.14 Stabilization of Turbulent Combustion Flames 3066.15 Turbulent Flame Models 307Further Reading 312References 312Homework Problems 3157 Detonation Waves 3197.1 Introduction 3197.2 Qualitative Differences Between Detonation and Deflagration Waves 3197.3 The Hugoniot Curve 3217.4 Burned Gas Properties and the C–J Detonation-Wave Velocity 3287.5 Zel’dovich–von Neumann–Döring (ZND) One-Dimensional Wave Model 3407.6 Multidimensional Detonation Wave Structure 3437.7 Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition (DDT) in Gaseous Mixtures 3487.8 Detonability Limits 3527.9 Detonability Limits of Confined Fuel Mixtures 3587.10 Engineering Applications of Detonation 3617.11 Possible Measures for Reducing Potential of Detonation 363References 364Homework Problems 3668 Non-premixed Flames 3698.1 Introduction 3698.2 Scale Analysis of Laminar and Turbulent Jet Flames 3708.3 Laminar Jet Flames 3738.4 Coaxial Jet Flames 3808.5 Combustion Chemistry of Laminar Jet Flames 3878.6 Turbulent Gaseous Fuel Jets 3938.7 Measurements of Non-Premixed Turbulent Flames 3978.8 Models of Non-Premixed Turbulent Flames 4008.9 Buoyant Flames 403References 405Homework Problems 4069 Droplet Combustion 4099.1 Introduction 4099.2 Droplet Evaporation in Quiescent Environments 4099.3 Combustion of a Fuel Droplet in a Quiescent Environment 4159.4 Droplet Formation in Convective Environments 4219.5 Fuel Droplet Evaporation in a Convective Environment 4269.6 Droplet Combustion in Supercritical Environments 4369.7 Application: Compression Ignition Engine Combustion 446References 452Homework Problems 45410 Emissions 45710.1 Introduction 45710.2 Nitrogen Oxides 45810.3 Carbon Monoxide 47310.4 Particulate Matter 47510.5 Soot Radiation 48010.6 Emissions Control in Internal Combustion Engines 485References 490Homework Problems 49111 Solid Fuel Combustion 49511.1 Introduction 49511.2 Drying of Solid Fuels 49511.3 Biomass Pyrolysis 50011.4 Char Oxidation 50411.5 Solid Fuel Ignition 50911.6 Example: Biomass Cookstove 51811.7 Gasification of Solid Fuels 521References 522Homework Problems 523A Conversion Factors and Physical Constants 525Reference 526B Thermal and Transport Properties of Air 527B.1 Introduction 527References 529C Thermodynamic Property Tables for Various Ideal Gases 531Reference 538D Curve-Fit Equations for Thermodynamic Properties of Gaseous Fuels and Combustion Products 539References 543E Transport Properties of Gases: Mass Diffusion, Viscosity, and Thermal Conductivity 545E.1 Introduction 545E.2 Binary Diffusion Coefficients DAB 545E.3 Dynamic Viscosity μ 547E.4 Thermal Conductivity k 549E.5 Curve-Fits and Coefficients for Viscosity, Thermal Conductivity, and Specific Heat 549References 551F Equations of State 553F.1 Introduction 553F.1.1 Ideal-Gas Equation of State 553F.1.2 Van der Waals Equation of State 553F.1.3 Redlich–Kwong Equation of State 554F.1.4 Soave (SRK) and Peng–Robinson Equations of State 554F.1.5 Virial Equation of State 555F.1.6 Beattie–Bridgeman Equation of State 555F.1.7 Benedict–Webb–Rubin Equation of State 556F.1.8 Ideal-Gas Mixing Rules 556F.1.9 Mixing Rules for Redlich–Kwong Types of Equation of State 557F.1.10 Benedict–Webb–Rubin Mixing Rules 557F.1.11 Virial Equation Mixing Parameters 557F.2 Thermodynamic Derivatives 558References 559G Mathematical Relations 561G.1 Numerical Solution of Equilibrium Combustion Equations 561G.2 Gaussian Error Function 564G.3 Bessel Functions of the First Kind 565H Computer Programs 567Index 569