Electric Power System Basics for the Nonelectrical Professional

Steven W. Blume, MSEE, PE, is the Founder of Applied Professional Training, Inc., which became an accredited college under the name of APTC.edu, and stayed in business for over 25 years. He now works as an independent consulting contractor under the business name and website www.BlumeConsulting.com. He is a registered professional engineer with a Master’s degree in electrical engineering specializing in Power Systems and a Bachelor’s degree specializing in Telecommunications. Blume is a NERC certified Reliability Coordinator, and his engineering and operations experience includes generation, transmission, distribution, protection, and electrical safety. He is an active lifetime Senior Member of IEEE and has published two books in power systems through Wiley-IEEE Press.

• About the Author xvPreface xviiChapter Summaries xixAcknowledgments xxv1 System Overview, Terminology, and Basic Concepts 1Chapter Objectives 1History of Electric Power 1System Overview 3Terminology 4Voltage 4Current 5Hole Flow vs. Electron Flow 5Power 6Energy 7dc Voltage and Current 7AC Voltage and Current 8Comparing AC and DC Voltage and Current 8Frequency 9Phase Angle 9AC Voltage Generation 10Physical Law # 1 10Single-Phase AC Voltage Generation 11Three-Phase AC Voltage Generation 11Three-Phase AC Generator 11The Stator 11The Rotor 12The Exciter 15AC Connections 16Delta 17Wye 17Wye and Delta Stator Connections 17Three Types of Electrical Load 18Resistive Load 19Inductive Load 19Capacitive Load 192 Generation 21Chapter Objectives 21Real-Time Generation 21Power Plants and Prime Movers 22Steam Turbine Power Plants 23Fossil Fuel Power Plants 24Nuclear Power Plants 25Nuclear Energy 27Other Related Topics 31Hydroelectric Power Plants 32Pumped Storage Hydropower Plants 33Combustion Turbine Generation Plants 35Combined Cycle Power Plants (Combustion and Steam) 37Renewable Energy 37Cost of Renewable Energy Generation 39Wind Turbine Generators 40Solar Thermal 42Solar Direct Generation (Photovoltaic) 43Geothermal Power Plants 47Biomass 48Inverter-based Resources 493 Transmission Lines 53Chapter Objectives 53Transmission Lines 53Raising Voltage to Reduce Current 54Raising Voltage to Reduce Losses 55Bundled Conductors 55Conductors 55Conductor Material 56Copper 56Aluminum 56Steel 56Conductor Types 57Solid 57Stranded 57Aluminum-Conductor Steel-Reinforced (ACSR) 57Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported (ACSS) 58Conductor Size 58American Standard Wire Gauge (AWG) 58Circular Mils (CMs) 59Insulation and Outer Covers 59Voltage Classes 60Transmission Line Design Parameters 61Insulation 61Air Gaps for 60-Hertz Power Frequency Voltage 61Contamination Levels 61Expected Switching Surge Overvoltage Conditions 62Safe Working Space 62Lightning Performance 62Audible Noise 62Underground Transmission 62dc Transmission Systems 634 Substations 65Chapter Objectives 65Substation Equipment 65Transformers 66Transformer Fundamentals 67Power Transformers 69Bushings 70Instrument Transformers 71Current Transformers 72Potential Transformers 73Autotransformers 74Regulators 77Theory of Operation 77Regulator Controls 81Base Voltage 82Bandwidth 82Time Delay 83Manual/Auto 83Compensation 83Other Regulator Settings 84Circuit Breakers 84SF 6 Gas Circuit Breakers 85Oil Circuit Breakers 85Vacuum Circuit Breakers 87Air Circuit Breakers 87Reclosers 88Disconnect Switches 90Substations 91Line Switches 92Lightning Arresters 94Electrical Bus 97Capacitor Banks 98Substation Capacitor Banks 98Distribution Capacitor Bank 98Reactors 100Shunt Reactors—Transmission 100Series Reactors – Distribution 101Static VAR Compensators 101Control Building 103Preventative Maintenance 104Infrared Technology 104Dissolved Gas Analysis 1055 Distribution 107Chapter Objectives 107Distribution Systems 107Distribution Voltages 108Distribution Feeders 109WYE vs. Delta Feeders and Connections 110Derivation of Line-to-Ground vs. Line-to-Neutral Voltages 115Wye 116Overhead Primaries 116Delta Overhead Primaries 117Transformer Connections 119Distribution Transformers: Single Phase 120Transformer Secondary Connections: Residential 121Single-Phase One-Bushing Transformer 123Distribution Transformers: Three-Phase 123Transformer Internal Connections 123The Three-Phase Wye–Wye Transformer Bank (208/120 Vac) 125The Three-Phase Wye–Wye Transformer Bank (480/277 Vac) 125Dry Pack Transformers 126Three-Phase Delta Transformer Banks (240/120 Vac) 127Fuses and Cut-Outs 129Riser or Dip Pole 132Underground Service 132Primary Distribution Cable 133Load Break Elbow 134Splices 134Underground Single-Phase Connection 136Underground Wye–Wye Three-Phase Connections 138Single-Phase Open-Loop Underground System 138Secondary Service Wire 1396 Consumption 141Chapter Objectives 141Electrical Energy Consumption 141Consumption Characteristics 142Basic AC Circuits 142Phase Angle Comparisons between Load Types 143Combining Load Types 143Power System Efficiency 144Power Factor 145Supply and Demand in Real Time 146Demand Side Management 147Residential 147Commercial 148Industrial 148Data Centers 148Metering 149Residential Metering 150Demand Metering 151Time of Use Metering 152Smart Consumption 153Reactive Meters 154Primary Metering 154Performance-Based Rates 156Service Entrance Equipment 157Residential Service Entrance Equipment 158Service Entrance Panel 159Light Switch 160Receptacle 161Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter Receptacles 163240 Volt Loads 164Commercial and Industrial Service Entrance Equipment 165Power Factor Correction 165Over-Correcting Power Factor 166Location of Power Factor Correction Capacitors 166Motor Starting Techniques 167Emergency Stand-by Generators 168UPS Systems 168Power Quality 1697 System Protection 173Chapter Objectives 173Two Types of Protection 173System Protection Equipment and Concepts 175Protective Relays 175Solid State 176Electromechanical Relays 176Inverse Current–Time Concept 176One-Line Diagrams 179Distribution Protection 180Overcurrent and Reclosing Relays 181Typical Distribution Feeder Relay Operation 181Underfrequency Relays 183Transmission Protection 183Zone or Distance Relays 184Zone 1 Relays 185Zone 2 Relays 185Zone 3 Relays 186Substation Protection 186Differential Relays 186Transformer Differential Relays 186Bus Differential Protection Schemes 187Over and Undervoltage Relays 187Generator Protection 187Winding Short Circuit 187Unbalanced Fault Current 188Frequency Excursion 188Loss of Excitation 188Field Ground Protection 188Motoring 188Steam Safety Valve Tripping 189Generator Synchronization 189Synchronizing Procedure 190Overall Transmission Protection 191Substation Automation 191Wildfire Ignition Risk Reduction 1948 Interconnected Power Systems 195Chapter Objectives 195Interconnected Power Systems 195The North American Power Grids 196Regulatory Environment 197Independent System Operators (ISOs) and Regional Transmission Operators (RTOs) 198Regional Entities 199The Balancing Authority 199Interchange Scheduling 200Area Control Error 201ACE Equation 202Time Correction 203Interconnected System Operations 203Inertia of the Power Grid 204Balanced Generation Conditions 205Unbalanced Generation Conditions 206System Stability 206System Instability 208Conditional Stability 208Unit Regulation and Frequency Response 209System Demand and Generator Loading 209Spinning Reserves 210Capacity for Sale 211Reactive Reserves and Voltage Control 211Generator Dispatch 212Load Forecasting 212Reliable Grid Operations 213Normal Operations 215Disturbance Situational Awareness 215Frequency Deviation 215Cascading Failures 217Voltage Deviation 218Emergency Operations 218Loss of Generation 219Loss of Transmission Sources 2209 System Control Centers and Telecommunications 223Chapter Objectives 223Electric System Control Centers 223Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) 225Data Acquisition Functions 226Control Functions 228Energy Management Systems 228State Estimator 229Contingency Analysis 229Transmission Stability Analysis 229Dynamic Security Assessment 230Emergency Load Shedding 230Power Flow Analysis 230Generation Planning, Scheduling, and Control 230Economic Dispatch 231Reactive Power Scheduling 231Dynamic Reserves Analysis 231Load Profiling and Forecasts 231Demand Side Management 231Energy Accounting 232Operator Training Simulator 232Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS) 232Synchrophasors and Power Angles 234Telecommunications 236Optical Fiber 237Microwave Radio 241Power Line Carrier 242Radio Communications 243Copper Communications 244Satellite Communications 244Utility Communications Systems 24410 The Transitioning Digital Power Grid 247Chapter Objectives 247Grid Resiliency 247The Intelligent Grid 248Transitioning Grid Reliability 249Battery Energy Storage Systems 251DER Transformation 251High Dependency on IBRs 252Voltage Ride Through 254Frequency Ride Through 255The Transitioning Distribution System 257Comparing Traditional to Modernized Distribution Systems 258Key Components and Features of ADMS 258Key Components and Functions of DERMs 259Resilient Microgrids 260Electric Vehicles 262Fast Charging 263EV Infrastructure and Grid Operations 264Bi-directorial EV Charging as a DER 264EV Environmental Impact 265EV Charging Methods 265Building the Digital Grid of Tomorrow 265The Digital Twin and Cybersecurity 266Grid Flexibility 26611 Personal Protection (Safety) 269Chapter Objectives 269Electrical Safety 269Personal Protection 270Human Vulnerability to Electrical Current 270Principles of “Isolation” Safety 270Principles of “Equipotential” Safety 272Ground Potential Rise 273Touch and Step Potentials 273Working Transmission Safely 274Energized Equipment 274De-Energized Equipment and Ground Jumpers 275Working Distribution Safety 276Switching 278ARC Flash 278About the Arc 280Hazard Categories 280Protective Clothing and Equipment 281Approach Boundaries 283Electrical Safety Around the Home 283Appendix A The Derivation of Root Mean Squared 287Residential Voltage 287Appendix B Graphical Power Factor Analysis 289Recommended Reading 291Index 293