Natural Surfactants

DR. GUIDO BOGNOLO has spent his professional career in managerial positions within Procter&Gamble and Imperial Chemical Industries. He was founder and managing director of Warren Staudt Associates, a consulting company providing technical and commercial assistance in the field of surface-active agents. DR. KRISTER HOLMBERG is Professor Emeritus at Chalmers University of Technology. Before joining Chalmers in 1998 he was director of the Institute for Surface Chemistry in Stockholm and prior to that he was Research Director of Berol Nobel, a surfactants company. He has published 330 scientific papers and written or edited several books related to surface chemistry.

• Preface xiAcronyms xv1 General Views on Natural Surfactants 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Surfactants from Nature 21.3 Natural Surfactants Versus Bio-Based Surfactants 41.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 81.5 Production Process of Natural Surfactants 91.5.1 Selection of the Microorganism 111.5.2 Medium Composition 111.5.3 Feeding Strategies 131.5.3.1 Pulse Feed 131.5.3.2 Constant Feed Rate 131.5.3.3 Exponential Feed Rate 131.5.3.4 Feedback Control Feed Rate 141.5.4 Biosurfactants Transport 151.5.5 Recovery and Purification 151.6 Raw Materials in Natural Surfactants Production 161.7 Life Cycle Analysis of Natural Surfactants 171.8 Production Costs of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 181.9 Natural Surfactants are Chiral 191.10 A Glimpse into the Future 20References 242 Saponins 292.1 Introduction 292.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 312.3 Biological Activity 362.3.1 Antibacterial Activity 362.3.2 Antiviral Activity 362.3.3 Antifungal Activity 362.3.4 Antiparasitic Activity 362.3.5 Antiinflammatory Activity 362.3.6 Antitumor Activity 372.3.7 Hepatoprotective Activity 372.3.8 Immunoadjuvant Activity 372.4 Sources of Commercial Saponins 382.5 Extraction and Purification 412.6 Toxicology 442.6.1 Acute Toxicity 442.6.2 Long-Term Toxicity in Mice 442.6.3 Short-Term Toxicity in Rats 462.6.4 Long-Term Toxicity in Rats 462.7 Producers and Vendors 462.8 Products and Prices 492.9 Existing Applications 492.10 Potential Applications 522.11 Regulatory 552.11.1 Saponins in Pharmacopoeias 552.11.2 Saponins in Food and Cosmetics Regulatory 55References 563 Phospholipids 633.1 Introduction 633.2 Chemical Structure and Properties of Lecithin 663.3 Production 683.4 Producers and Prices 703.5 Existing Applications 733.5.1 Liposomes for Delivery of Bioactive Substances 733.5.2 Lecithin in Food, Feed, and Nutrition 753.5.3 Lecithin in Personal Care Formulations 763.5.4 Lecithin in Other Industrial Areas 763.6 Regulatory 77References 784 Bile Acids 814.1 Introduction 814.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 814.3 Producers 824.4 Applications 82References 835 Rhamnolipids 855.1 Introduction 855.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 855.3 Biosynthesis 905.4 Biotechnological Production 915.4.1 Choosing the Bacteria 915.4.2 Fermentation Conditions 925.4.2.1 Medium Composition 935.4.2.2 Fermentation Parameters 945.4.2.3 Extraction and Purification 945.4.3 Reducing Raw Material Costs 955.4.3.1 Waste Cooking Oils (WCO) 955.4.3.2 Other Sources 965.4.4 Overcoming Pathogenicity 975.5 Rhamnolipids Through Organic Synthesis 985.6 Rhamnolipids Through Bioorganic Synthesis 1005.7 Biodegradability, Toxicity, and Antimicrobial Effect 1015.8 Suppliers, Formulators, Products, and Prices 1025.9 Existing Applications 1045.10 Potential Applications 1055.11 Regulatory 107References 1076 Sophorolipids 1176.1 Introduction 1176.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 1176.3 Biosynthesis 1236.4 Production 1256.5 Production Costs 1286.6 Biodegradability and Toxicity 1296.7 Suppliers, Formulators, Products, and Prices 1296.8 Existing Applications 1346.8.1 Cosmetics 1346.8.2 Household Cleaning 1346.8.3 Source of Chemicals 1356.9 Potential Applications 1356.10 Regulatory 136References 1377 Mannosylerythritol Lipids 1417.1 Introduction 1417.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 1417.3 Production 1457.4 Producers 1487.5 Existing and Potential Applications 1487.5.1 Cosmetics 1487.5.2 Disinfection 1497.5.3 Crop Protection 150References 1518 Trehalose Lipids 1538.1 Introduction 1538.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 1538.3 Production 1588.4 Skin Toxicity 1598.5 Existing Applications 1598.6 Potential Applications 160References 1619 Cellobiose Lipids 1639.1 Introduction 1639.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 1639.3 Production 1659.4 Potential Applications 165References 16610 Xylolipids 16710.1 Introduction 16710.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 16710.3 Producers 16810.4 Potential Applications 169References 16911 Lipopeptides 17111.1 Introduction 17111.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 17211.3 Biosynthesis 17311.4 Production 17411.5 Production Costs 17411.6 Toxicology, Environmental Properties 17511.7 Suppliers and Products 17611.8 Existing and Potential Applications 17711.9 Regulatory 177References 17712 Antimicrobial Peptides 18112.1 Introduction 18112.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 18212.3 Sources 18412.4 Production 18512.5 Mechanism of Action 18712.5.1 Extracellular Via Membrane Targeting Mode 18712.5.2 Intracellular Mode 19012.5.2.1 Inhibition of Protein Biosynthesis 19012.5.2.2 Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Biosynthesis 19012.5.2.3 Inhibition of Protease Activity 19012.5.2.4 Inhibition of Cell Division 19012.6 Existing and Potential Applications 19112.6.1 Medicine 19112.6.1.1 Wound Healing and Skin Infections 19112.6.1.2 Dental Care 19212.6.1.3 Ophthalmology 19212.6.1.4 Antibacterial Peptides 19212.6.1.5 Antifungal Peptides 19212.6.1.6 Anticancer Peptides 19212.6.1.7 Antiviral Peptides 19212.6.1.8 Antiparasitic Peptides 19312.6.1.9 Anti-HIV Peptides 19312.6.1.10 Endogenous Antimicrobial Peptides 19312.6.1.11 Biofilm Inhibitors 19312.6.2 Medical Devices 19312.6.3 Pharmaceutical Industry 19412.6.3.1 Therapeutic Antimicrobial Peptides on the Market 19412.6.3.2 Nanoparticle Formulations of Antimicrobial Peptides 19512.6.4 Food 19612.6.5 Animal Husbandry and Aquaculture 19612.6.6 Agriculture 19612.7 Producers 196References 19813 Lipopolysaccharides 20713.1 Introduction 20713.2 Chemical Structures and Properties 20913.3 The Emulsan Story 21113.4 Other Lipopolysaccharides 214References 21514 Characterization of Natural Surfactants 21914.1 Introduction 21914.2 Methods for the Characterization of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 22114.3 Methods to Determine the Self-Assembly Behavior of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 23014.4 Methods to Determine Phase Diagrams of Naturally Occurring Surfactants 23114.5 Methods for Strain Identification 23314.6 Methods to Identify the Biosynthesis Pathway of Surface-Active Compounds 234References 23515 Distinctive Features of Low- and High-Molecular-Weight Amphiphiles 24115.1 Introduction 24115.2 Emulsions 24215.3 Natural Amphiphiles as Emulsifiers and Emulsion Stabilizers 24515.3.1 Phospholipids 24615.3.2 Saponins 24715.3.3 Glycolipids 24815.3.4 Lipopeptides 24815.3.5 Surface-Active Proteins 24815.3.6 Lipopolysaccharides 250References 25116 Commercial Exploitation of Natural Surface-Active Agents 255Foreword 25516.1 Introduction 25516.2 Home Care 25616.2.1 Household Laundry Detergents 25616.2.2 Hand Dishwashing Cleaners 25816.2.3 Hard Surface Cleaners 25816.3 Cosmetics 25816.4 Plant Protection 26016.5 Food 26216.6 Oil Industry 26416.6.1 General 26416.6.2 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery 264References 269Index 273