Modern Power System

Arindam Ghosh, PhD, is a Research Academic Professor at Curtin University, Perth, Australia. He obtained his PhD from the University of Calgary, Canada. He was conferred the IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Custom Power Award in 2019. He has published over 450 peer reviewed journal and conference articles and has authored two books. He is a Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) and a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

• About the Author xvPreface xviiAcknowledgments xxiiiAbout the Companion Website xxv1 Introduction 11.1 A Brief History of Electricity 11.1.1 The Dawn of Electricity 31.1.2 Development of Electrical Power Plant 41.2 Interconnection of Electricity Grids 91.3 Deregulation 101.4 Renewable Energy 131.5 Blackouts 151.5.1 Power System Oscillations 161.6 Smart Grid 181.7 Phasor Analysis 201.8 Concluding Remarks 21References 212 Power System Components 232.1 Transmission Line Parameters 252.1.1 Line Resistance 252.1.2 Line Inductance 272.1.3 Line Charging Capacitance 312.2 Synchronous Machine Model 332.3 Transformer Model 352.4 Per Unit Representation 362.5 Modeling Transmission Lines 422.5.1 ABCD Parameters 432.5.2 Voltage Regulation 442.5.3 Short Line Approximation 452.5.4 Medium Line π Approximation 452.5.5 Medium Line T Approximation 462.5.6 Long Line Model 492.5.7 Equivalent-π Representation of a Long Line 532.5.8 Some Issues with Transmission Lines 552.6 Lossless Transmission Lines 562.6.1 Traveling Waves 582.6.2 Traveling Wave in Single-Phase, Two-Wire Line 602.7 Concluding Remarks 64References 64Problems 653 Power Flow Studies 693.1 Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix 703.1.1 Without Line Charging Capacitors 703.1.2 With Line Charging Capacitors 733.2 Load Flow Preliminaries 743.2.1 Classification of Buses 763.2.2 Data Preparation 773.3 Load Flow Methods 793.3.1 Gauss–Seidel Load Flow Method 803.3.2 Basics of Newton–Raphson Iterative Procedure 833.3.3 Newton–Raphson Load Flow Method 853.3.4 Fast Decoupled Load Flow 913.3.5 Line Flows 963.3.6 dc Load Flow 983.4 State Estimation 1003.4.1 Principles of Estimation 1003.4.2 Maximum-Likelihood Estimation 1013.4.3 DC State Estimation 1043.4.4 AC State Estimation 1063.4.5 Bad Data Detection 1103.5 SCADA and EMS 1143.6 Concluding Remarks 115References 116Problems 1174 Economic Operation of Power System 1254.1 Economic Operation of a Power Plant 1264.1.1 Economic Distribution of Loads Between Two Units of a Plant 1264.1.2 Economic Distribution of Loads Between Multiple Units of a Plant 1304.1.3 Consideration of Generator Limits 1334.2 Economic Operation of a Power System 1364.3 Unit Commitment 1414.3.1 Spinning Reserve 1454.3.2 Thermal Limit Constraints 1454.3.3 Solution Methods for Unit Commitment Problem 1464.4 Automatic Generation Control 1484.4.1 Load Frequency Control (LFC) 1534.4.2 Coordination Between LFC and Economic Operation 1554.5 Concluding Remarks 156References 157Problems 1575 Power System Fault Analysis 1615.1 Transients in an RL Circuit 1625.1.1 DC Source 1625.1.2 AC Source 1645.1.3 Fault in an AC Circuit 1655.2 Short Circuit in an Unloaded Synchronous Generator 1675.3 Symmetrical Fault in a Power System 1705.3.1 Calculation of Fault Current Using Impedance Diagram 1705.3.2 Calculation of Fault Current Using Bus Impedance Matrix 1735.4 Symmetrical Components 1755.4.1 Symmetrical Component Transformation 1765.4.2 Real and Reactive Power 1795.5 Sequence Circuits and Networks 1805.5.1 Sequence Circuit for a Y-Connected Load 1815.5.2 Sequence Circuit for a Delta-Connected Load 1835.5.3 Sequence Circuit for a Synchronous Generator 1865.5.4 Sequence Circuit for a Symmetrical Transmission Line 1885.5.5 Sequence Circuits for Transformers 1915.5.5.1 Y–Y-Connected Transformer 1915.5.5.2 Δ–Δ–Connected Transformer 1935.5.5.3 Y–Δ-Connected Transformer 1955.5.6 Sequence Networks 1965.6 Unsymmetrical Faults 1985.6.1 Single-Line-to-Ground (1LG) Fault 1995.6.2 Line-to-Line (LL) Fault 2025.6.3 Double-Line-to-Ground (2LG) Fault 2055.6.4 Fault Current Computation Using Sequence Networks 2085.7 Concluding Remarks 216Reference 216Problems 2166 Power System Protection 2236.1 Protective Elements 2246.1.1 Fuses 2246.1.2 Circuit Breakers 2266.2 Instrument Transformers 2286.2.1 Current Transformer (CT) 2296.2.2 Potential Transformer (PT) 2306.3 Protective Relays 2306.3.1 Overcurrent Relay 2316.3.2 Directional Relay 2326.3.3 Distance Protection 2356.3.4 Differential Protection 2366.3.5 Transformer Protection 2376.3.6 Pilot Relays 2396.4 Overcurrent Relay Coordination 2416.5 Zones of Protection 2456.6 Protection in the Presence of Distributed Renewable Generators 2496.6.1 Protection Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 2506.6.2 Inverse Time Admittance (ITA) Relay 2526.7 IEC 61850 2546.8 Concluding Remarks 256References 257Problems 2587 Power System Stability and Control 2637.1 Transient Stability 2657.1.1 Power–Angle Curve 2657.1.2 Swing Equation 2687.1.3 Critical Clearing Angle 2717.1.4 Critical Clearing Time 2767.1.5 Simplified Calculation of Critical Clearing Angle 2847.2 Multimachine System Stability 2867.2.1 Classical Method 2887.2.2 Pre-fault Bus Admittance Matrix 2897.2.3 Reduction of Bus Admittance Matrix 2927.2.4 Bus Admittance Matrices During Fault and Post-Fault 2937.2.5 Multimachine Swing Equation 2947.2.6 Oscillations in a Two-Area System 2967.3 Excitation Control 2987.3.1 Linearized Swing Equation 2997.3.2 Excitation System 3037.3.3 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) 3067.3.4 Power System Stabilizer (PSS) 3097.4 Concluding Remarks 312References 312Problems 3138 Reactive Power Compensation 3198.1 Voltage Stability 3208.2 Ideal Reactive Compensation 3258.3 Ideal Shunt Compensation 3268.3.1 Improving Voltage Profile 3278.3.2 Improving Power-Angle Characteristics 3328.3.3 Improving Stability Margin 3348.3.4 Power Swing Damping 3378.3.5 Shunt Compensator Representation 3388.4 Ideal Series Compensation 3408.4.1 Impact of Series Compensator on Voltage Profile 3408.4.2 Improving Power-Angle Characteristics 3438.4.3 Improving Stability Margin 3468.4.4 Power Flow Control and Power Swing Damping 3468.4.5 An Alternate Method of Series Compensation 3498.5 Concluding Remarks 352References 352Problems 3539 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) 3579.1 Static Var Compensator (SVC) 3589.1.1 Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC) 3589.1.2 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR) 3609.1.3 Composition of SVC 3659.1.4 SVC Characteristics 3669.2 Static Compensator (STATCOM) 3689.3 High-Power Converters 3699.3.1 Six-Step Converter 3709.3.2 Twelve-Step Converter 3729.3.3 6q-Step Converter 3779.3.4 Multilevel Converters 3779.4 Subsynchronous Oscillations 3799.4.1 Subsynchronous and Supersynchronous Frequencies 3809.4.2 Shaft Torsional Modes 3819.4.3 Subsynchronous Frequency Analysis 3849.4.4 Countermeasures to SSR 3889.5 Thyristor-Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) 3899.5.1 When One of the Thyristors Is On 3909.5.2 When Both Thyristors Are Off 3929.5.3 Estimating the Fundamental Impedance of a TCSC 3929.6 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) 3969.7 Other FACTS Devices 4009.7.1 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 4009.7.2 Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) 4039.7.3 Thyristor-Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR) 4049.7.4 Thyristor-Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR) 4069.8 Concluding Remarks 406References 407Problems 40910 High-Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission Systems 41310.1 Attributes of DC Systems 41410.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of HVDC Systems 41410.1.2 Types of HVDC Systems 41510.2 LCC-HVDC Systems 41710.2.1 System Characteristics with Zero Ignition Angle 41810.2.2 System Characteristics with Nonzero Ignition Angle 41910.2.3 Overlap Angle 42110.2.4 Inverter Operation 42210.2.5 Active Power 42310.2.6 Twelve-Pulse Converter 42510.3 VSC-HVDC Systems 42510.3.1 Control of a Voltage Source Converter (VSC) 42610.3.2 VSC-HVDC Configuration 42710.3.3 Direct Control of VSC-HVDC Systems 42910.3.4 Vector Control of VSC-HVDC Systems 43010.4 Multiterminal HVDC Systems 43410.4.1 Multiterminal System Configurations 43610.4.2 MTDC Control 43710.5 dc Protection Systems 44110.6 Concluding Remarks 442References 443Problems 44411 Renewable Energy 44711.1 Waterpower 44811.1.1 Hydropower 44811.1.2 Types of Hydropower Turbines 45011.1.3 Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) 45011.1.4 Tidal Energy 45211.1.5 Wave Energy 45411.2 Solar Power 45611.2.1 Solar Tracking 45711.2.2 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems 45911.2.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 46211.2.4 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) 46611.3 Wind Power 46711.3.1 Wind Turbine Types 46811.3.2 Wind Power Calculations 47011.3.3 Pitch Angle Control 47211.3.4 Types of Wind Power Collectors 47311.4 Hydrogen 47811.4.1 Hydrogen Production 48011.4.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transmission 48211.4.3 Utilization of Hydrogen 48311.5 Nuclear Fusion 48411.6 Renewable Energy in Power Transmission Systems 48611.6.1 Grid Forming Converter (GFC) 48711.6.2 Virtual Synchronous Generator (VSG) 48811.6.3 Fault Ride Through (FRT) 49111.7 Renewable Energy in Power Distribution Systems 49211.7.1 Voltage Rise and Line Loss 49311.7.2 Reverse Power Flow and Voltage Unbalance 50011.8 Concluding Remarks 504References 506Problems 50812 Fundamentals of Smart Grid 51112.1 Sensor Systems 51312.1.1 Computation of Phasors from Instantaneous Measurements 51312.1.2 Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) 51712.1.3 Smart Meter 51912.2 Demand Response 52012.2.1 Controlling Household Appliances 52412.3 Cybersecurity 52612.3.1 False Data Injection Attacks 52712.4 Electric Vehicle (EV) 52912.4.1 Types of Electric Vehicles 52912.4.2 EV Charging 53212.4.3 Wireless Charging 53312.5 Smart Grid Communications 53612.5.1 Smart Grid Communication Mediums 53612.5.2 Communication Requirements 54012.6 Smart Grid Standards 54012.7 Smart Distribution Grids 54212.7.1 Virtual Power Plant (VPP) 54212.7.2 Microgrid (MG) 54412.7.3 Microgrid Control 54512.8 Concluding Remarks 548References 548Index 553