Protection of Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Tariq Masood, M.Phil., PhD, P.E. is an Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering at Frostburg State University, USA. He earned his PhD in Electrical Power System Smart Grid and Renewable Energies from the University of Bath, UK. Jamil Abdo, PhD, is a Professor and the Chair of the Department of Engineering at Frostburg State University, USA. He obtained his PhD in Mechanical Design from Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA. Atif Iqbal, DSc, PhD, is a Full Professor of the Department of Electrical Engineering at Qatar University, Qatar. He serves as the Vice-Chair of the IEEE Qatar Section, and is an Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics and Senior Editor of IEEE Access.

• Author Biographies xixForeword xxiPreface xxiiiAcknowledgments xxixDefinition/Abbreviations xxxixWeb Catalog xliExercises Discussed in this Book xliiiFigures Discussed in this Book xlixEquations Discussed in this Book lvTables Discussed in this Book lvii1 Introduction 11.1 Objectives 11.2 Introduction 12 The Protection Overlay 52.1 Objectives 52.2 Introduction 52.3 Nonunit Protection and Unit Protection 62.3.1 Nonunit or Nonrestricted Protection 72.3.1.1 Nonunit Protection Using Time for Discrimination 72.3.1.2 Nonunit Protection Not Using Time for Discrimination 82.3.2 Unit or Restricted Protection 82.4 Nonunit Protection and Unit Protection 102.5 Backup Protection 142.5.1 Primary and Secondary Protection Schemes 152.5.2 Dual Main Protection Schemes 162.6 Self-Assessments Questions 17Bibliography 173 Nonunit Protection of Distribution Feeders 233.1 Objectives 233.2 Introduction 233.3 Fuses 243.3.1 Fuse Operating Characteristics 263.3.2 Protecting Radial Feeder Circuits with Fuses 283.3.3 Expulsion Fuse for Protecting Radial Feeder Circuits 313.3.4 Circuit Breaker-Assisted Fuse Protection Schemes 323.4 Overcurrent Relays 343.5 IDMT Overcurrent Relays 353.5.1 Operating Characteristics 353.5.2 Relay Types 373.5.2.1 Electromechanical Relays 373.5.2.2 Static (Analog) Relays 393.5.2.3 Digital Relays 403.5.3 Overcurrent Relay Setting 413.5.3.1 Protecting Feeder Circuits with IDMT Overcurrent Relays 423.5.3.2 The Relay Current Settings 433.5.3.3 Relay Time Settings 483.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays 503.7 Conclusion 513.8 Self-Assessment Questions 523.8.1 Protecting Feeder Circuits Using IDMT Overcurrent Relays with Instantaneous Elements 533.8.2 Protecting Feeder Circuits Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 543.8.3 Phase Fault Protection Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 563.8.4 Phase Fault Protection of Parallel Feeders 563.8.5 Phase Fault Protection of Ring Main Circuits 573.8.6 Earth Fault Protection Using Directional Overcurrent Relays 593.8.7 Computer-Based Overcurrent Relay Grading 61Bibliography 614 Protection Transducers 674.1 Objectives 674.2 Introduction 674.3 Current Transformer (CT) 684.4 Voltage Transformer (VT) 714.5 Self-Assessment Questions 73Bibliography 735 Unit Protection of Distribution Feeders 795.1 Objectives 795.2 Introduction 795.3 Conventional Differential Protection 805.4 Digital Differential Protection 835.5 Directional Earth Fault Protection 855.6 Rough Balance Protection 865.7 Self-Assessment Questions 89Bibliography 906 Transformer Protection 956.1 Objectives 956.2 Introduction 956.2.1 Earth Fault 966.2.2 Phase Fault 966.2.3 Interturn Fault 986.2.4 Core Fault 986.3 Protection Overview 986.4 Differential Protection 996.4.1 Factors Affecting Differential Protection 996.4.2 Transformation Ratio 996.4.3 Phase Shifts in Delta/Star Windings 1006.4.4 Tap Changing 1026.4.5 Magnetic Inrush 1036.5 Fuse Protection 1076.6 Overcurrent Protection 1086.7 Restricted Earth Fault Protection 1086.8 Buchholz Protection 1096.9 Winding Temperature Protection 1106.10 Summary 1106.11 Self-Assessment Questions 112Bibliography 1127 Busbar Protection 1177.1 Objectives 1177.2 Introduction 1177.3 Busbar Fault Clearing Using Backup Protection 1187.4 Frame-Earth Protection 1187.4.1 Basic System 1187.4.2 Frame-Earth with Check Relay 1207.4.3 Frame-Earth Protection for Sectioned Busbar 1207.4.4 Frame Earth Protection for Double Busbar Switchboard 1227.5 Differential Protection 1227.5.1 Basic Application 1227.5.2 Differential Protection for Sectioned Substation 1247.5.3 Differential Protection for Double Busbar Substation 1257.5.4 High Impedance Relays for Differential Busbar Schemes 1277.5.5 Stabilizing Resistance 1277.5.6 Relay Setting Calculation 1297.6 Self-Assessment Questions 131Bibliography 1318 Motor Protection 1378.1 Objectives 1378.2 Introduction 1378.3 Motor Characteristics Involved in Protection 1388.4 Stator Winding Protection 1398.5 Overload Protection 1408.6 Phase Unbalance Protection 1418.7 Self-Assessment Questions 143Bibliography 1439 Embedded Generation Protection Systems 1479.1 Objectives 1479.2 Introduction 1479.2.1 Embedded Generation 1479.2.2 Types of Generation 1489.3 Problem Introduced by Connecting Embedded Generating 1509.3.1 Safety 1509.3.2 Quality of Supply 1519.3.3 Short-Circuit and Damage Prevention Protection 1529.3.4 Protection Guidelines 1539.4 Utility Protection Requirements for an Embedded Generator 1549.4.1 Short-Circuit Protection for External Faults 1549.4.2 Short-Circuit Protection for Internal Faults 1549.4.3 Neutral Displacement Protection 1559.4.4 Phase Unbalance Protection 1569.4.5 Field Failure and Pole-Slipping Protection 1569.4.6 Reverse Power Protection 1589.4.7 Synchronization Control of the Connection Circuit Braker 1599.4.8 Under-/Overvoltage and Under-/Over-frequency Protection 1599.4.9 Loss of Grid Protection 1599.4.10 Protection Supervision 1649.5 Self-Assessment Questions 165Bibliography 16510 Autoreclose Relaying 16910.1 Objectives 16910.2 Introduction 16910.2.1 The Main Cause of Faults on Overhead Distribution Lines 17010.2.2 Transient, Semipermanent, and Permanent Faults 17010.2.3 Fault Clearance 17110.2.4 Circuit Breaker Operation 17110.3 Autoreclosing Relays 17210.3.1 The Single-Shot Autoreclosing Relay Sequence 17210.3.2 Choice of Dead Time 17410.3.3 Multiple-Shot Autoreclose Schemes 17510.3.4 Check Synchronism Relays 17810.4 Self-Assessment Questions 180Bibliography 18011 Coordinated Protection and Control 18511.1 Objectives 18511.2 Conventional Protection and Control Systems 18511.3 Coordinated Protection and Control 18811.4 Digital Technology 18911.4.1 Digital Communications 18911.4.2 Computer Networking 19111.4.3 Communication Media for Data Communications 19411.4.4 Digital Relays 19411.5 Typical Structure of a Modern Coordinated Substation 19511.6 Self-Assessment Questions 198Bibliography 19812 Smart Grid Operation & Control 20312.1 Objectives 20312.2 Introduction 20312.2.1 Distributed Intelligence 20412.2.2 Broadband Communication 20412.3 Distribution System 20512.4 The Smart Grid Ultimate Goal 20612.5 Smart Grid Decentralized Versus Centralized Control 20712.6 Distribution Automation (DA) 20812.6.1 Communication Networks 20912.6.2 Distribution Automation (DA) – FDIR 20912.6.2.1 Fault Detection, Isolation, and Restoration (FDIR) 20912.6.2.2 Radial Low-Voltage Networks 21012.6.2.3 Voltage Measurement Schematic 21112.6.3 Fault Detection, Isolation, and Restoration (FDIR) and FLISR 21212.7 Volt-Var Optimization (VVO) 21312.8 SCADA System 21412.8.1 SCADA System Functions 21612.8.2 SCADA System Outage Monitoring 21612.9 Case Studies 21712.9.1 Northern Virginia Electric Cooperative (NOVEC) 21712.9.2 Electric Power Board of Chattanooga 21812.9.3 Duke Energy 21812.9.4 Consolidated Edison (Con Edison) 21912.9.5 Centerpoint Energy 21912.9.6 PPL Electric Utilities Corporation 22012.9.7 Pepco – Dc 22012.9.8 Southern Company 22112.9.9 Wisconsin Power and Light Company (WPL) 22112.9.10 Central Lincoln People’s Utility District 22212.9.11 Florida Power & LIG, HT Company (FPL) 22212.10 Smart Grid System for PV and Wind 22312.11 R&D Challenges 22312.12 Standardization Efforts in Smart Grid Technologies 22312.12.1 Key Organizations Involved in Standardization 22412.12.2 Impact of Policies on Smart and Microgrid Operations 22512.12.2.1 Renewable Energy Policies 22512.12.2.2 Energy Efficiency and Demand Response 22512.12.2.3 Cybersecurity and Privacy Regulations 22512.13 Challenges in Regulatory and Standardization Implementation 22612.13.1 Harmonization Across Regions 22612.13.2 Regulatory Uncertainty 22612.13.3 Balancing Innovation and Regulation 22612.14 Future Directions in Regulatory and Standardization Efforts 22712.15 Self-Assessment Questions 228Bibliography 22813 Microgrid Operation and Control 23113.1 Objectives 23113.2 Introduction 23113.3 Classification of Microgrids 23113.3.1 AC Microgrid Operations and Control 23413.3.2 dc Microgrid Operations and Control 23513.3.3 Hybrid Microgrid Operations and Control 23613.4 Microgrid Control 23813.5 Droop Control – Parallel Inverter in UPS System 24113.5.1 Bidirectional DC/DC Converters 24213.5.2 Droop Control – Parallel Inverter in UPS System 24313.5.3 Droop Control – Battery Charging and Discharging Systems 24313.5.4 Off-Grid and Island Microgrid 24513.5.5 Different Types of Islanding 24613.5.6 Grid Following Inverters 24613.5.7 Grid-Forming Inverters 24813.6 Short-Circuit Study 24913.6.1 Advantages of Short-Circuit Ratio Study 24913.6.2 Traditional Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR) Method 24913.7 Strong and Weak Microgrid 24913.8 Types of Circuit Breakers in the AC and DC Microgrid 25013.8.1 Time Current Curve 25213.8.1.1 Typical Example of TCCs 25313.8.1.2 Terminology of LSI (Long Time, Short Time, and Instantaneous) 25313.8.1.3 Time Current Curve – TCC-Time Band 25613.8.1.4 Terminology of MCCB and LVPCB 25613.8.1.5 TCC for MCCBs Normally 2 Settings 25713.8.1.6 TCC for LVPCBs. Normally 5 Settings 25813.8.1.7 TCC for Fuse 25913.8.1.8 TCC – Peak Let-Through for Fuses 26113.9 Low Voltage Trip Unit 26213.10 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical 26313.11 CB Selectivity or Coordination for Grid Operations 26413.12 Microgrid Adaptive and Predictive Control Techniques 26813.12.1 Control of Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) 26913.12.1.1 Integration of DERs 26913.12.1.2 Inverter-Based Control 26913.13 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in Grid Control 26913.13.1 AI and ml 26913.13.2 Data Analytics 26913.14 Coordination of Multiple Control Levels 27013.14.1 Hierarchical Control Structures 27013.14.2 Interoperability and Standardization 27013.15 Regulatory and Standardization Aspects 27013.15.1 Overview of Regulatory Frameworks 27013.15.1.1 National and Regional Regulations 27013.15.1.2 Market Structures and Economic Regulation 27113.16 Self-Assessment Questions 272Bibliography 27214 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning’s Industrial Application 27514.1 Objectives 27514.2 Thinking Probabilistic 27514.3 AI Machine Power and Disruption 27714.4 Designing Reliable Systems 27914.5 Embracing Uncertainty 28014.6 AI System Prediction Technology 28014.7 AI Prediction Machine Rules 28114.8 AI Model Architecture 28114.9 AI Models Tutorials 28214.9.1 AI Industrial Assessment Models 28214.9.2 Introduction to Machine Learning in Microgrid Operations 28414.9.3 Data Analytics in Microgrid Control 28614.9.4 Machine Learning Applications in Microgrid Control 28714.9.5 Case Studies and Practical Implementations 28814.10 Challenges and Future Directions 29014.11 Conclusion 29214.12 Probability AI Models Configuration 29414.13 Self-Assessments Questions 296Bibliography 29615 Cybersecurity and Information Program’s Power System 29715.1 Objectives 29715.2 Introduction 29815.3 Cybersecurity Operations 29915.4 Cybersecurity Impact and Solution 29915.4.1 Validate Process Mapping 30115.4.2 Data Collection Frame 30215.4.3 Data Collection – Introducing System Mapping 30315.5 How Can You Help? 30315.6 Cybersecurity Tailored Models 30715.6.1 Project Plan Work For (IT Penetration Testing, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment Framework) 30715.6.1.1 Operational Summary 30715.6.1.2 Objectives 30815.6.1.3 Scope of Work 30815.6.1.4 Methodology 30815.6.1.5 Tools Used 30915.6.1.6 Assessment and Testing Environment 30915.6.1.7 Finding Overview 30915.6.1.8 Security Controls and Levels 31015.6.1.9 Training Needs 31015.6.1.10 Deliverables 31015.6.1.11 Time Line 31015.6.2 Scope of Work for (OT Penetration Testing, Vulnerability, and Risk Assessment Framework) 31015.6.2.1 Operational Summary 31115.6.2.2 Planning and Preparation 31115.6.2.3 Assessment Phase 31115.6.2.4 Testing Phase 31215.6.2.5 Reporting Phase 31215.6.2.6 Remediation and Improvement 31215.6.2.7 Continuous Monitoring and Follow-Up 31315.6.2.8 Scope of Assessment 31315.6.2.9 OT Environment Equipment List 31415.7 Self-Assessment Questions 315Bibliography 315Self-Assessment Question’s Answers Section-wise 317Tutor Marked Assignments 343About the Authors 347Index 351