Pamela Beth Radcliff is Professor of History at the University of California, San Diego. She is the author of From Mobilization to Civil War: The Politics of Polarization in the Spanish City of Gijon, 1900-1937 (1996), Making Democratic Citizens in Spain: Civil Society and the Popular Origins of the Transition, 1960-1978 (2011)and co-editor of Constructing Spanish Womanhood: Female Identity in Modern Spain (1999).

"The book is an instructive synthesis of the history of Spain over 200 years. Modern Spain not only debunks the old 'failure narrative' but also complicates the larger European narrative, by undermining the very idea of a European model. The monograph merits a place among the best single volume analyses of the thorny history of contemporary Spain and will be very helpful for undergraduate and postgraduate students alike." - Alejandro Quiroga, Newcastle University for the Journal of the Association for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies (2018)

• List of Maps xiPreface xiiAcknowledgments xviAbbreviations and Glossary of Foreign Terms xviiiPolitical Chronology of Spanish History, 1808–2016 xxiiPart I: 1808–1868: The Era of the Liberal Revolution 11 Spain in the “Age of Revolutions” 3Spain in Europe and the World, 1780s–1820 4A Snapshot of the Economy: Gradual Growth 7Uneven Regional Development: Center/Periphery Divide 10The Mediterranean Regional Network 10The North Atlantic Regional Network 11Regional Networks of the Center 12Demography: A Growth Pattern 14Characteristics of the Population: Occupation and Social Structure 15Culture and Community 18Political Crisis, 1808–1814 20Dynastic Crisis 20War and Resistance 21The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812 22A Spanish “Constitutional Culture” 23The End of the Revolutionary Era 25Conclusion 262 Political Transformation: From the Old Regime to the Liberal State, 1814–1868 28Introduction: The Liberal Revolution in Comparative Context 28The Major Players 31Moderate and Progressive Parties 31The Military and Pronunciamientos 32The Crown 32Popular/Local Mobilization 33Counter]revolution: Carlists 33The Catholic Church 34Chronology: From the Restoration of Absolutism to the Construction and Crisis of the Liberal State, 1814–1868 351814–1833: The Restoration and Demise of the Absolutist State 35Restoration of Absolutism, 1814–1820 35The Liberal “Trienio,” 1820–23 36Return to Absolutism, 1823–34 381833–1845: The Construction of the Liberal State 39The Carlist War 39Moderate and Progressive Constitutions and Platforms 40The Parameters of a Liberal Political, Juridical and Administrative Order, 1833–45 421845–1868: The Liberal State: From Consolidation to Crisis 44Conclusion: Achievements and Limits of the Liberal Political Transformation 45Part II: 1868–1923: The Emergence of Mass Politics 493 Politics on the Margins of the Liberal State: From 1848 to the “Sexenio” (1868–1874) 51Introduction: Mid]Nineteenth]century Popular Politics in Comparative Perspective 51The Major Players 54Carlists 54Cuban Separatists 55Democrats and Republicans 56The Labor Movement and the First International 58The First Democracy: The Sexenio, 1868–1874 60The September 1868 Revolution 60The Democratic Monarchy (June 1869–February 1873) 61The Republic (February 12, 1873–January 4, 1874) 63Conclusion 654 A New Era of Liberal Politics: The Second Restoration, 1875–1898 67The Restoration in Comparative Context: State,Nation, Empire and Democracy 68The Multiple Faces of the Restoration Regime 71Constructing a New Constitutional Regime: Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and the turno pacífico 71The Dark Side of the Turno: Electoral Fraud and Caciquismo 74Evaluating the Constraints and Opportunities of Restoration Politics 75Constraints on Political Liberties Imposed by the State 75Political Constraints and Opportunities: The View “From Below” 77The “Disaster” of 1898: The Start of a New Era? 805 Restoration Politics: From Fin de Siècle to Postwar Crisis, 1898–1923 83Introduction: Early Twentieth]Century Spanish Politics in Comparative Context 831898–1914: Efforts to Reform the Regime “From Above” 85The Conservative Party and Antonio Maura 86The Liberal Party and José Canalejas 871914–23: From Elite Reform to Mass Mobilization: Alternative Political Projects 90The First World War in Spain 90From the Turno to Fragmentation of the Liberal and Conservative Parties, 1913–23 91Movements on the Right 92Catholic Mobilization 92Basque Nationalism (PNV/CNV) 93Mauristas/Spanish Nationalism 94Movements on the Left 95Socialists (PSOE/UGT) 95Anarcho]syndicalists (CNT) 96Movements of the Center 97Republicanism 97Catalanism/LLiga 98Turning Points in the Crisis of the Restoration, 1917–23 99The Democratic Assembly Movement, 1917 100The La Canadiense Strike, 1919 101A Last Effort at Reform “From Above,” 1920–23? 102Conclusion 103Part III: The Long View: Social, Economic and Cultural Change, 1830–1930 1056 Economic and Demographic Evolution: 1830–1930 107Spain in the World Economy, 1830–1930 108General Economic and Population Trends: Gradual Growth and Structural Evolution 110The Agricultural Sector 113The Industrial Sector 115Uneven Regional Development: Center/Periphery Divide 118Conclusion: Missed Opportunities or Inherent Constraints? 1207 Culture and Society, 1830–1930 122Introduction: Social and Cultural Evolution in Comparative Perspective 122The Social Order: Evolution and Diversity 124A Hybrid Elite 125The Urban Middle Classes 126The Popular Classes or “el pueblo” 127Rural Society 128Sociability and Identity: A Diverse and Evolving Cultural Landscape 129A New Urban Culture: Encoding Social Hierarchy in the Public Sphere 130On the Margins of Middle Class Culture: The Avant]Garde and the Modern Woman 133Urban Popular Sociability and Mass Culture 134The Catholic Church, Religion and Rural Society 136Local, Regional and National Cultures and Identities 139Conclusion 142Part IV: Dictatorship and Democracy, 1923–Present 1438 The First Dictatorship: The Primo de Rivera Regime, 1923–1930 145Introduction: The Primo Regime in Comparative Perspective 145From Coup to “Temporary” Dictatorship, 1923–1925 148Elements of a New Kind of Dictatorship: The Civil Directory, 1925–1929 149Labor Relations 150Nationalization Campaigns 151Authoritarian Development 153End of the Dictatorship, 1929–1930 154Political Transition to a Republic, 1930–1931 155Conclusion 1569 The Second Republic: 1931–1936 158The Second Republic in Comparative Perspective 159Periodization: The Shifting Majority Coalitions of the Second Republic 161The First Biennium (1931–1933): Pursuing a Center/Left Majority Coalition 164What Went Wrong with the First Biennium? 167Mobilizing against the Coalition 167A Disintegrating Majority Coalition 169The Second Biennium, 1933–1935: Pursuing a Center/Right Majority Coalition 173What Went Wrong with the Second Biennium? 175Mobilizing against the Coalition 176An Unconsolidated Majority Coalition 178The Popular Front, February–July 1936 180What Went Wrong with the Popular Front? 181Conclusion 18210 The Civil War: 1936–1939 184The Civil War in Comparative Perspective 185From Military Coup to Civil War: The Summer of 1936 187The Rebel Forces in the Summer of 1936 188Ideology and Violence in Rebel Territory 190The Loyalist Forces during the Summer of 1936 191Revolution in Republican Territory 191Violence in Republican Territory 194Organizing for the Long War: The Republicans 195Foreign Aid 196Reconstructing a Republican State 198Organizing for the Long War: The Nationalists 201Constructing a “New State” 201Foreign Aid 203The Military Stages of the War 204Conclusion 20711 The Second Dictatorship: The Franco Regime, 1939–1976 209The Franco Regime in Comparative Perspective 210Periodization: The Stages of the Franco Dictatorship 212Phase One, 1936–1945: Militarization, Fascist Influence and Extreme Repression 214Phase II, 1945–1957: National Catholicism, Monarchist Restoration and International Integration 218Phase III, 1957–1969: Authoritarian Development and Institutionalization 221Phase IV, 1969–1975: Collapse of the Coalition and Death of the Dictator 227Conclusion 22912 Economic, Social and Cultural Transformation, 1930s–1970s 230Economy, Society and Culture in Comparative Perspective 230Economic and Demographic Trends 232The “Years of Hunger”: Deprivation, Disease and Death in the 1940s 232From Economic Stagnation to Rapid Growth: 1950s–1970s 234Structural shift from Agriculture to Industry and Service Sectors 235Consumption and Population Trends 236Uneven Benefits 237Social and Cultural Trends 238Society and Culture in the Years of Hunger 239Rupture and Restitution for Winners and Losers 239Family and Gender 240The Church, Religion and Education 241The Public Sphere: Associations and Sociability 242Social and Cultural Evolution in the Growth Years: 1960s–1970s 244Migration and Social Mobility 244Diversification of the Public Sphere 245The Decline of “Tradition”: Youth, Gender and Religion 247Conclusion 24813 The Last Democratic Transition: 1976–1982 250The Transition to Democracy in Comparative Perspective 251Origins of the Transition: Favorable Factors vs. the 1930s 252Economic Development 252Geographic Location: Western Europe 252Civil Society Mobilization 253Francoist Elites: Reformers and the Bunker 254The Institutional Transition: July 1976–December 1978 254Elite Actors and the “Push from Below,” 1976–77 255The June 1977 Elections and Building Consensus Through “Pacts” 257The Constitution of 1978 259The Basque Exception 261From Transition to Consolidation, 1978–1982 261Autonomous Governments 262Local Governments 262Leadership Crisis and Attempted Coup, 1981 263The 1982 Election 264Conclusion 26514 Democratic State and Social Transformation, 1982–2016 266The Democratic Era in Comparative Perspective 266Democratic government under PSOE leadership: 1982–1996 270Institutionalization and European Integration 270Neo]Liberalism and Social Welfare 272The End of the PSOE Era 273From Consolidation to Crispación: PP and PSOE alternation from 1996 to 2011 274Political Polarization 275State/Regional Polarization 277Democratic Society 2772008–2016: Crisis and Uncertainty 278Conclusion 280Notes 282Works Cited 314Index 336

Pamela Beth Radcliff is Professor of History at the University of California, San Diego. She is the author of From Mobilization to Civil War: The Politics of Polarization in the Spanish City of Gijon, 1900-1937 (1996), Making Democratic Citizens in Spain: Civil Society and the Popular Origins of the Transition, 1960-1978 (2011)and co-editor of Constructing Spanish Womanhood: Female Identity in Modern Spain (1999).

"The book is an instructive synthesis of the history of Spain over 200 years. Modern Spain not only debunks the old 'failure narrative' but also complicates the larger European narrative, by undermining the very idea of a European model. The monograph merits a place among the best single volume analyses of the thorny history of contemporary Spain and will be very helpful for undergraduate and postgraduate students alike." - Alejandro Quiroga, Newcastle University for the Journal of the Association for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies (2018)

• List of Maps xiPreface xiiAcknowledgments xviAbbreviations and Glossary of Foreign Terms xviiiPolitical Chronology of Spanish History, 1808–2016 xxiiPart I: 1808–1868: The Era of the Liberal Revolution 11 Spain in the “Age of Revolutions” 3Spain in Europe and the World, 1780s–1820 4A Snapshot of the Economy: Gradual Growth 7Uneven Regional Development: Center/Periphery Divide 10The Mediterranean Regional Network 10The North Atlantic Regional Network 11Regional Networks of the Center 12Demography: A Growth Pattern 14Characteristics of the Population: Occupation and Social Structure 15Culture and Community 18Political Crisis, 1808–1814 20Dynastic Crisis 20War and Resistance 21The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812 22A Spanish “Constitutional Culture” 23The End of the Revolutionary Era 25Conclusion 262 Political Transformation: From the Old Regime to the Liberal State, 1814–1868 28Introduction: The Liberal Revolution in Comparative Context 28The Major Players 31Moderate and Progressive Parties 31The Military and Pronunciamientos 32The Crown 32Popular/Local Mobilization 33Counter]revolution: Carlists 33The Catholic Church 34Chronology: From the Restoration of Absolutism to the Construction and Crisis of the Liberal State, 1814–1868 351814–1833: The Restoration and Demise of the Absolutist State 35Restoration of Absolutism, 1814–1820 35The Liberal “Trienio,” 1820–23 36Return to Absolutism, 1823–34 381833–1845: The Construction of the Liberal State 39The Carlist War 39Moderate and Progressive Constitutions and Platforms 40The Parameters of a Liberal Political, Juridical and Administrative Order, 1833–45 421845–1868: The Liberal State: From Consolidation to Crisis 44Conclusion: Achievements and Limits of the Liberal Political Transformation 45Part II: 1868–1923: The Emergence of Mass Politics 493 Politics on the Margins of the Liberal State: From 1848 to the “Sexenio” (1868–1874) 51Introduction: Mid]Nineteenth]century Popular Politics in Comparative Perspective 51The Major Players 54Carlists 54Cuban Separatists 55Democrats and Republicans 56The Labor Movement and the First International 58The First Democracy: The Sexenio, 1868–1874 60The September 1868 Revolution 60The Democratic Monarchy (June 1869–February 1873) 61The Republic (February 12, 1873–January 4, 1874) 63Conclusion 654 A New Era of Liberal Politics: The Second Restoration, 1875–1898 67The Restoration in Comparative Context: State,Nation, Empire and Democracy 68The Multiple Faces of the Restoration Regime 71Constructing a New Constitutional Regime: Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and the turno pacífico 71The Dark Side of the Turno: Electoral Fraud and Caciquismo 74Evaluating the Constraints and Opportunities of Restoration Politics 75Constraints on Political Liberties Imposed by the State 75Political Constraints and Opportunities: The View “From Below” 77The “Disaster” of 1898: The Start of a New Era? 805 Restoration Politics: From Fin de Siècle to Postwar Crisis, 1898–1923 83Introduction: Early Twentieth]Century Spanish Politics in Comparative Context 831898–1914: Efforts to Reform the Regime “From Above” 85The Conservative Party and Antonio Maura 86The Liberal Party and José Canalejas 871914–23: From Elite Reform to Mass Mobilization: Alternative Political Projects 90The First World War in Spain 90From the Turno to Fragmentation of the Liberal and Conservative Parties, 1913–23 91Movements on the Right 92Catholic Mobilization 92Basque Nationalism (PNV/CNV) 93Mauristas/Spanish Nationalism 94Movements on the Left 95Socialists (PSOE/UGT) 95Anarcho]syndicalists (CNT) 96Movements of the Center 97Republicanism 97Catalanism/LLiga 98Turning Points in the Crisis of the Restoration, 1917–23 99The Democratic Assembly Movement, 1917 100The La Canadiense Strike, 1919 101A Last Effort at Reform “From Above,” 1920–23? 102Conclusion 103Part III: The Long View: Social, Economic and Cultural Change, 1830–1930 1056 Economic and Demographic Evolution: 1830–1930 107Spain in the World Economy, 1830–1930 108General Economic and Population Trends: Gradual Growth and Structural Evolution 110The Agricultural Sector 113The Industrial Sector 115Uneven Regional Development: Center/Periphery Divide 118Conclusion: Missed Opportunities or Inherent Constraints? 1207 Culture and Society, 1830–1930 122Introduction: Social and Cultural Evolution in Comparative Perspective 122The Social Order: Evolution and Diversity 124A Hybrid Elite 125The Urban Middle Classes 126The Popular Classes or “el pueblo” 127Rural Society 128Sociability and Identity: A Diverse and Evolving Cultural Landscape 129A New Urban Culture: Encoding Social Hierarchy in the Public Sphere 130On the Margins of Middle Class Culture: The Avant]Garde and the Modern Woman 133Urban Popular Sociability and Mass Culture 134The Catholic Church, Religion and Rural Society 136Local, Regional and National Cultures and Identities 139Conclusion 142Part IV: Dictatorship and Democracy, 1923–Present 1438 The First Dictatorship: The Primo de Rivera Regime, 1923–1930 145Introduction: The Primo Regime in Comparative Perspective 145From Coup to “Temporary” Dictatorship, 1923–1925 148Elements of a New Kind of Dictatorship: The Civil Directory, 1925–1929 149Labor Relations 150Nationalization Campaigns 151Authoritarian Development 153End of the Dictatorship, 1929–1930 154Political Transition to a Republic, 1930–1931 155Conclusion 1569 The Second Republic: 1931–1936 158The Second Republic in Comparative Perspective 159Periodization: The Shifting Majority Coalitions of the Second Republic 161The First Biennium (1931–1933): Pursuing a Center/Left Majority Coalition 164What Went Wrong with the First Biennium? 167Mobilizing against the Coalition 167A Disintegrating Majority Coalition 169The Second Biennium, 1933–1935: Pursuing a Center/Right Majority Coalition 173What Went Wrong with the Second Biennium? 175Mobilizing against the Coalition 176An Unconsolidated Majority Coalition 178The Popular Front, February–July 1936 180What Went Wrong with the Popular Front? 181Conclusion 18210 The Civil War: 1936–1939 184The Civil War in Comparative Perspective 185From Military Coup to Civil War: The Summer of 1936 187The Rebel Forces in the Summer of 1936 188Ideology and Violence in Rebel Territory 190The Loyalist Forces during the Summer of 1936 191Revolution in Republican Territory 191Violence in Republican Territory 194Organizing for the Long War: The Republicans 195Foreign Aid 196Reconstructing a Republican State 198Organizing for the Long War: The Nationalists 201Constructing a “New State” 201Foreign Aid 203The Military Stages of the War 204Conclusion 20711 The Second Dictatorship: The Franco Regime, 1939–1976 209The Franco Regime in Comparative Perspective 210Periodization: The Stages of the Franco Dictatorship 212Phase One, 1936–1945: Militarization, Fascist Influence and Extreme Repression 214Phase II, 1945–1957: National Catholicism, Monarchist Restoration and International Integration 218Phase III, 1957–1969: Authoritarian Development and Institutionalization 221Phase IV, 1969–1975: Collapse of the Coalition and Death of the Dictator 227Conclusion 22912 Economic, Social and Cultural Transformation, 1930s–1970s 230Economy, Society and Culture in Comparative Perspective 230Economic and Demographic Trends 232The “Years of Hunger”: Deprivation, Disease and Death in the 1940s 232From Economic Stagnation to Rapid Growth: 1950s–1970s 234Structural shift from Agriculture to Industry and Service Sectors 235Consumption and Population Trends 236Uneven Benefits 237Social and Cultural Trends 238Society and Culture in the Years of Hunger 239Rupture and Restitution for Winners and Losers 239Family and Gender 240The Church, Religion and Education 241The Public Sphere: Associations and Sociability 242Social and Cultural Evolution in the Growth Years: 1960s–1970s 244Migration and Social Mobility 244Diversification of the Public Sphere 245The Decline of “Tradition”: Youth, Gender and Religion 247Conclusion 24813 The Last Democratic Transition: 1976–1982 250The Transition to Democracy in Comparative Perspective 251Origins of the Transition: Favorable Factors vs. the 1930s 252Economic Development 252Geographic Location: Western Europe 252Civil Society Mobilization 253Francoist Elites: Reformers and the Bunker 254The Institutional Transition: July 1976–December 1978 254Elite Actors and the “Push from Below,” 1976–77 255The June 1977 Elections and Building Consensus Through “Pacts” 257The Constitution of 1978 259The Basque Exception 261From Transition to Consolidation, 1978–1982 261Autonomous Governments 262Local Governments 262Leadership Crisis and Attempted Coup, 1981 263The 1982 Election 264Conclusion 26514 Democratic State and Social Transformation, 1982–2016 266The Democratic Era in Comparative Perspective 266Democratic government under PSOE leadership: 1982–1996 270Institutionalization and European Integration 270Neo]Liberalism and Social Welfare 272The End of the PSOE Era 273From Consolidation to Crispación: PP and PSOE alternation from 1996 to 2011 274Political Polarization 275State/Regional Polarization 277Democratic Society 2772008–2016: Crisis and Uncertainty 278Conclusion 280Notes 282Works Cited 314Index 336

Pamela Beth Radcliff is Professor of History at the University of California, San Diego. She is the author of From Mobilization to Civil War: The Politics of Polarization in the Spanish City of Gijon, 1900-1937 (1996), Making Democratic Citizens in Spain: Civil Society and the Popular Origins of the Transition, 1960-1978 (2011)and co-editor of Constructing Spanish Womanhood: Female Identity in Modern Spain (1999).

"The book is an instructive synthesis of the history of Spain over 200 years. Modern Spain not only debunks the old 'failure narrative' but also complicates the larger European narrative, by undermining the very idea of a European model. The monograph merits a place among the best single volume analyses of the thorny history of contemporary Spain and will be very helpful for undergraduate and postgraduate students alike." - Alejandro Quiroga, Newcastle University for the Journal of the Association for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies (2018)

• List of Maps xiPreface xiiAcknowledgments xviAbbreviations and Glossary of Foreign Terms xviiiPolitical Chronology of Spanish History, 1808–2016 xxiiPart I: 1808–1868: The Era of the Liberal Revolution 11 Spain in the “Age of Revolutions” 3Spain in Europe and the World, 1780s–1820 4A Snapshot of the Economy: Gradual Growth 7Uneven Regional Development: Center/Periphery Divide 10The Mediterranean Regional Network 10The North Atlantic Regional Network 11Regional Networks of the Center 12Demography: A Growth Pattern 14Characteristics of the Population: Occupation and Social Structure 15Culture and Community 18Political Crisis, 1808–1814 20Dynastic Crisis 20War and Resistance 21The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812 22A Spanish “Constitutional Culture” 23The End of the Revolutionary Era 25Conclusion 262 Political Transformation: From the Old Regime to the Liberal State, 1814–1868 28Introduction: The Liberal Revolution in Comparative Context 28The Major Players 31Moderate and Progressive Parties 31The Military and Pronunciamientos 32The Crown 32Popular/Local Mobilization 33Counter]revolution: Carlists 33The Catholic Church 34Chronology: From the Restoration of Absolutism to the Construction and Crisis of the Liberal State, 1814–1868 351814–1833: The Restoration and Demise of the Absolutist State 35Restoration of Absolutism, 1814–1820 35The Liberal “Trienio,” 1820–23 36Return to Absolutism, 1823–34 381833–1845: The Construction of the Liberal State 39The Carlist War 39Moderate and Progressive Constitutions and Platforms 40The Parameters of a Liberal Political, Juridical and Administrative Order, 1833–45 421845–1868: The Liberal State: From Consolidation to Crisis 44Conclusion: Achievements and Limits of the Liberal Political Transformation 45Part II: 1868–1923: The Emergence of Mass Politics 493 Politics on the Margins of the Liberal State: From 1848 to the “Sexenio” (1868–1874) 51Introduction: Mid]Nineteenth]century Popular Politics in Comparative Perspective 51The Major Players 54Carlists 54Cuban Separatists 55Democrats and Republicans 56The Labor Movement and the First International 58The First Democracy: The Sexenio, 1868–1874 60The September 1868 Revolution 60The Democratic Monarchy (June 1869–February 1873) 61The Republic (February 12, 1873–January 4, 1874) 63Conclusion 654 A New Era of Liberal Politics: The Second Restoration, 1875–1898 67The Restoration in Comparative Context: State,Nation, Empire and Democracy 68The Multiple Faces of the Restoration Regime 71Constructing a New Constitutional Regime: Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and the turno pacífico 71The Dark Side of the Turno: Electoral Fraud and Caciquismo 74Evaluating the Constraints and Opportunities of Restoration Politics 75Constraints on Political Liberties Imposed by the State 75Political Constraints and Opportunities: The View “From Below” 77The “Disaster” of 1898: The Start of a New Era? 805 Restoration Politics: From Fin de Siècle to Postwar Crisis, 1898–1923 83Introduction: Early Twentieth]Century Spanish Politics in Comparative Context 831898–1914: Efforts to Reform the Regime “From Above” 85The Conservative Party and Antonio Maura 86The Liberal Party and José Canalejas 871914–23: From Elite Reform to Mass Mobilization: Alternative Political Projects 90The First World War in Spain 90From the Turno to Fragmentation of the Liberal and Conservative Parties, 1913–23 91Movements on the Right 92Catholic Mobilization 92Basque Nationalism (PNV/CNV) 93Mauristas/Spanish Nationalism 94Movements on the Left 95Socialists (PSOE/UGT) 95Anarcho]syndicalists (CNT) 96Movements of the Center 97Republicanism 97Catalanism/LLiga 98Turning Points in the Crisis of the Restoration, 1917–23 99The Democratic Assembly Movement, 1917 100The La Canadiense Strike, 1919 101A Last Effort at Reform “From Above,” 1920–23? 102Conclusion 103Part III: The Long View: Social, Economic and Cultural Change, 1830–1930 1056 Economic and Demographic Evolution: 1830–1930 107Spain in the World Economy, 1830–1930 108General Economic and Population Trends: Gradual Growth and Structural Evolution 110The Agricultural Sector 113The Industrial Sector 115Uneven Regional Development: Center/Periphery Divide 118Conclusion: Missed Opportunities or Inherent Constraints? 1207 Culture and Society, 1830–1930 122Introduction: Social and Cultural Evolution in Comparative Perspective 122The Social Order: Evolution and Diversity 124A Hybrid Elite 125The Urban Middle Classes 126The Popular Classes or “el pueblo” 127Rural Society 128Sociability and Identity: A Diverse and Evolving Cultural Landscape 129A New Urban Culture: Encoding Social Hierarchy in the Public Sphere 130On the Margins of Middle Class Culture: The Avant]Garde and the Modern Woman 133Urban Popular Sociability and Mass Culture 134The Catholic Church, Religion and Rural Society 136Local, Regional and National Cultures and Identities 139Conclusion 142Part IV: Dictatorship and Democracy, 1923–Present 1438 The First Dictatorship: The Primo de Rivera Regime, 1923–1930 145Introduction: The Primo Regime in Comparative Perspective 145From Coup to “Temporary” Dictatorship, 1923–1925 148Elements of a New Kind of Dictatorship: The Civil Directory, 1925–1929 149Labor Relations 150Nationalization Campaigns 151Authoritarian Development 153End of the Dictatorship, 1929–1930 154Political Transition to a Republic, 1930–1931 155Conclusion 1569 The Second Republic: 1931–1936 158The Second Republic in Comparative Perspective 159Periodization: The Shifting Majority Coalitions of the Second Republic 161The First Biennium (1931–1933): Pursuing a Center/Left Majority Coalition 164What Went Wrong with the First Biennium? 167Mobilizing against the Coalition 167A Disintegrating Majority Coalition 169The Second Biennium, 1933–1935: Pursuing a Center/Right Majority Coalition 173What Went Wrong with the Second Biennium? 175Mobilizing against the Coalition 176An Unconsolidated Majority Coalition 178The Popular Front, February–July 1936 180What Went Wrong with the Popular Front? 181Conclusion 18210 The Civil War: 1936–1939 184The Civil War in Comparative Perspective 185From Military Coup to Civil War: The Summer of 1936 187The Rebel Forces in the Summer of 1936 188Ideology and Violence in Rebel Territory 190The Loyalist Forces during the Summer of 1936 191Revolution in Republican Territory 191Violence in Republican Territory 194Organizing for the Long War: The Republicans 195Foreign Aid 196Reconstructing a Republican State 198Organizing for the Long War: The Nationalists 201Constructing a “New State” 201Foreign Aid 203The Military Stages of the War 204Conclusion 20711 The Second Dictatorship: The Franco Regime, 1939–1976 209The Franco Regime in Comparative Perspective 210Periodization: The Stages of the Franco Dictatorship 212Phase One, 1936–1945: Militarization, Fascist Influence and Extreme Repression 214Phase II, 1945–1957: National Catholicism, Monarchist Restoration and International Integration 218Phase III, 1957–1969: Authoritarian Development and Institutionalization 221Phase IV, 1969–1975: Collapse of the Coalition and Death of the Dictator 227Conclusion 22912 Economic, Social and Cultural Transformation, 1930s–1970s 230Economy, Society and Culture in Comparative Perspective 230Economic and Demographic Trends 232The “Years of Hunger”: Deprivation, Disease and Death in the 1940s 232From Economic Stagnation to Rapid Growth: 1950s–1970s 234Structural shift from Agriculture to Industry and Service Sectors 235Consumption and Population Trends 236Uneven Benefits 237Social and Cultural Trends 238Society and Culture in the Years of Hunger 239Rupture and Restitution for Winners and Losers 239Family and Gender 240The Church, Religion and Education 241The Public Sphere: Associations and Sociability 242Social and Cultural Evolution in the Growth Years: 1960s–1970s 244Migration and Social Mobility 244Diversification of the Public Sphere 245The Decline of “Tradition”: Youth, Gender and Religion 247Conclusion 24813 The Last Democratic Transition: 1976–1982 250The Transition to Democracy in Comparative Perspective 251Origins of the Transition: Favorable Factors vs. the 1930s 252Economic Development 252Geographic Location: Western Europe 252Civil Society Mobilization 253Francoist Elites: Reformers and the Bunker 254The Institutional Transition: July 1976–December 1978 254Elite Actors and the “Push from Below,” 1976–77 255The June 1977 Elections and Building Consensus Through “Pacts” 257The Constitution of 1978 259The Basque Exception 261From Transition to Consolidation, 1978–1982 261Autonomous Governments 262Local Governments 262Leadership Crisis and Attempted Coup, 1981 263The 1982 Election 264Conclusion 26514 Democratic State and Social Transformation, 1982–2016 266The Democratic Era in Comparative Perspective 266Democratic government under PSOE leadership: 1982–1996 270Institutionalization and European Integration 270Neo]Liberalism and Social Welfare 272The End of the PSOE Era 273From Consolidation to Crispación: PP and PSOE alternation from 1996 to 2011 274Political Polarization 275State/Regional Polarization 277Democratic Society 2772008–2016: Crisis and Uncertainty 278Conclusion 280Notes 282Works Cited 314Index 336