Robert K. Brigham is the Shirley Ecker Boskey Professor of History and International Relations at Vassar College, USA. He is the author of numerous publications on American foreign relations including Iraq, Vietnam and the Limits of American Power (2008) and Is Iraq Another Vietnam? (2006).

• Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvDramatis Personae xviiMaps xxii1 The First Gulf War, 1990–1991 1Chronology 1George H.W. Bush and the New World Order 8Iraq Invades Kuwait 10Building the Coalition against Saddam 15Operation Desert Storm 20Documents: 29Document 1-A, Excerpts from National Security Directive 26, “U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf,” October 2, 1989 29Document 1-B, Meeting between Saddam Hussein and U.S. Ambassador April Glaspie, excerpts from April Glaspie memorandum, July 25, 1990 31Document 1-C, United Nations Resolution 660, August 2, 1990 33Document 1-D, United Nations Resolution 678, November 29, 1990 34Document 1-E, Excerpts from National Security Directive 54, January 15, 1991 35Document 1-F, Excerpts from speech by Saddam Hussein, February 11, 1991, Iraqi News Agency-Baghdad Radio 372 Clinton and Containment, 1992–2001 39Chronology 39Containment Plus 52Regime Change 54Documents: 64Document 2-A, Excerpts from United Nations Resolution 687, April 6, 1991 64Document 2-B, Excerpts from “Intelligence Successes and Failures in Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm,” U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, 103rd Congress, 1st session, August 1993 73Document 2-C, Excerpts from the remarks of Anthony Lake, assistant to the president for national security affairs, “From Containment to Enlargement,” Johns Hopkins University, School of Advanced International Studies, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1993 74Document 2-D, Remarks of the Honorable Ibrahim M. Al-Shaheen, deputy chairman of the Kuwaiti National Committee for P.O.W.s in Iraq, August 6, 2006, U.S. House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations 80Document 2-E, Letter dated May 5, 2001, from the permanent representative of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the secretary general, United Nations, New York 81Document 2-F, Text of President Clinton’s address to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Pentagon staff, Washington, D.C., February 17, 1998 84Document 2-G, Project for a New American Century, Statement of Principles, June 3, 1997 903 The Invasion of Iraq, 2003 93Chronology 93Connecting Terrorists to Iraq 96The Bush Doctrine 100The Legal Debate 109The War Plan 111The War Begins 114Documents: 120Document 3-A, Excerpts from George W. Bush’s State of the Union address, January 29, 2002 120Document 3-B, Excerpts from “The National Security of the United States of America,” September 2002 122Document 3-C, “The Problem of the Shia,” July 2002 123Document 3-D, Unclassifi ed report to Congress on the acquisition of technology relating to weapons of mass destruction and advanced conventional munitions, July 1–December 2002 136Document 3-E, Excerpts from H.J. 114, Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 107th Congress, 2nd session, October 2, 2002 138Document 3-F, “The Downing Street Memo,” from Matthew Rycroft, private secretary to Prime Minister Tony Blair, to David Manning, British ambassador to the United States, July 23, 2002 141Document 3-G, Excerpts from U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell’s presentation at the United Nations Security Council, February 6, 2003 144Document 3-H, U.S. ambassador to the United Nations John Negroponte’s letter to Ambassador Mamady Traore, president of the United Nations Security Council, March 20, 2003 1464 The Deadliest Fighting, 2003–2006 148Chronology 148The Battle of Fallujah 150Human Rights and Abu Ghraib 156The Coalition Provisional Authority 159General Casey and the Iraqi Civil War 164Documents: 172Document 4-A, Excerpts from Coalition Provisional Authority briefi ng with General John Abizaid, commander, U.S. Central Command, and Lt. General Ricardo Sanchez, commander, CJTF-7, April 12, 2004 172Document 4-B, Excerpts from memorandum for William J. Haynes II, general counsel of the Department of Defense, “Military Interrogation of Alien Unlawful Combatants Held Outside the United States,” March 14, 2003, U.S. Department of Justice, Offi ce of Legal Counsel 173Document 4-C, Testimony of Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld before the Senate and House Armed Services Committees, 7 May 2004 175Document 4-D, Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number One: “De-Baathifi cation of Iraqi Security,” Coalition Provisional Authority, Baghdad, Iraq, May 16, 2003 181Document 4-E, Excerpts from the Constitution of Iraq, October 2005, Iraqi News Agency 182Document 4-F, Excerpts from “National Strategy for Victory in Iraq,” National Security Council, November 30, 2005 1875 The Surge, 2006–2008 190Chronology 190A Change in Tactics 197Surging in Iraq 202Domestic Critics of the Surge 205Documents: 214Document 5-A, Excerpts from the Iraq Study Group Report, December 6, 2006 214Document 5-B, Fred Kagan, “Choosing Victory,” January 5, 2007, American Enterprise Institute 217Document 5-C, Excerpts from U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual 220Document 5-D, Excerpts from “Iraq First: The National Security Strategy of Iraq,” Republic of Iraq – the Cabinet 221Document 5-E, Excerpts from President George W. Bush’s speech to the nation on the Iraq War, January 10, 2007 224Document 5-F, Excerpts from Senator Barack Obama’s speech before the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, April 23, 2007 2276 Obama’s War, 2009–2011 230Chronology 230The Planned Withdrawal 233Human Rights Concerns in Iraq 238Documents: 248Document 6-A, Status of Forces Agreement, 2008 248Document 6-B, Transcript of President Obama’s remarks, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, February 27, 2009 266Document 6-C, Excerpts from the Obama administration’s National Security Strategy, May 2010 274Document 6-D, U.S. State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, excerpts from Annual Human Rights Report, Iraq–2011 275Document 6-E, Speech at the White House by Prime Minister al-Maliki, December 21, 2011, Radio Free Iraq 277Epilogue: The Future 280List of Documents 284Suggestions for Additional Reading 289Index 292

Robert K. Brigham is the Shirley Ecker Boskey Professor of History and International Relations at Vassar College, USA. He is the author of numerous publications on American foreign relations including Iraq, Vietnam and the Limits of American Power (2008) and Is Iraq Another Vietnam? (2006).

• Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvDramatis Personae xviiMaps xxii1 The First Gulf War, 1990–1991 1Chronology 1George H.W. Bush and the New World Order 8Iraq Invades Kuwait 10Building the Coalition against Saddam 15Operation Desert Storm 20Documents: 29Document 1-A, Excerpts from National Security Directive 26, “U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf,” October 2, 1989 29Document 1-B, Meeting between Saddam Hussein and U.S. Ambassador April Glaspie, excerpts from April Glaspie memorandum, July 25, 1990 31Document 1-C, United Nations Resolution 660, August 2, 1990 33Document 1-D, United Nations Resolution 678, November 29, 1990 34Document 1-E, Excerpts from National Security Directive 54, January 15, 1991 35Document 1-F, Excerpts from speech by Saddam Hussein, February 11, 1991, Iraqi News Agency-Baghdad Radio 372 Clinton and Containment, 1992–2001 39Chronology 39Containment Plus 52Regime Change 54Documents: 64Document 2-A, Excerpts from United Nations Resolution 687, April 6, 1991 64Document 2-B, Excerpts from “Intelligence Successes and Failures in Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm,” U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, 103rd Congress, 1st session, August 1993 73Document 2-C, Excerpts from the remarks of Anthony Lake, assistant to the president for national security affairs, “From Containment to Enlargement,” Johns Hopkins University, School of Advanced International Studies, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1993 74Document 2-D, Remarks of the Honorable Ibrahim M. Al-Shaheen, deputy chairman of the Kuwaiti National Committee for P.O.W.s in Iraq, August 6, 2006, U.S. House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations 80Document 2-E, Letter dated May 5, 2001, from the permanent representative of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the secretary general, United Nations, New York 81Document 2-F, Text of President Clinton’s address to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Pentagon staff, Washington, D.C., February 17, 1998 84Document 2-G, Project for a New American Century, Statement of Principles, June 3, 1997 903 The Invasion of Iraq, 2003 93Chronology 93Connecting Terrorists to Iraq 96The Bush Doctrine 100The Legal Debate 109The War Plan 111The War Begins 114Documents: 120Document 3-A, Excerpts from George W. Bush’s State of the Union address, January 29, 2002 120Document 3-B, Excerpts from “The National Security of the United States of America,” September 2002 122Document 3-C, “The Problem of the Shia,” July 2002 123Document 3-D, Unclassifi ed report to Congress on the acquisition of technology relating to weapons of mass destruction and advanced conventional munitions, July 1–December 2002 136Document 3-E, Excerpts from H.J. 114, Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 107th Congress, 2nd session, October 2, 2002 138Document 3-F, “The Downing Street Memo,” from Matthew Rycroft, private secretary to Prime Minister Tony Blair, to David Manning, British ambassador to the United States, July 23, 2002 141Document 3-G, Excerpts from U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell’s presentation at the United Nations Security Council, February 6, 2003 144Document 3-H, U.S. ambassador to the United Nations John Negroponte’s letter to Ambassador Mamady Traore, president of the United Nations Security Council, March 20, 2003 1464 The Deadliest Fighting, 2003–2006 148Chronology 148The Battle of Fallujah 150Human Rights and Abu Ghraib 156The Coalition Provisional Authority 159General Casey and the Iraqi Civil War 164Documents: 172Document 4-A, Excerpts from Coalition Provisional Authority briefi ng with General John Abizaid, commander, U.S. Central Command, and Lt. General Ricardo Sanchez, commander, CJTF-7, April 12, 2004 172Document 4-B, Excerpts from memorandum for William J. Haynes II, general counsel of the Department of Defense, “Military Interrogation of Alien Unlawful Combatants Held Outside the United States,” March 14, 2003, U.S. Department of Justice, Offi ce of Legal Counsel 173Document 4-C, Testimony of Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld before the Senate and House Armed Services Committees, 7 May 2004 175Document 4-D, Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number One: “De-Baathifi cation of Iraqi Security,” Coalition Provisional Authority, Baghdad, Iraq, May 16, 2003 181Document 4-E, Excerpts from the Constitution of Iraq, October 2005, Iraqi News Agency 182Document 4-F, Excerpts from “National Strategy for Victory in Iraq,” National Security Council, November 30, 2005 1875 The Surge, 2006–2008 190Chronology 190A Change in Tactics 197Surging in Iraq 202Domestic Critics of the Surge 205Documents: 214Document 5-A, Excerpts from the Iraq Study Group Report, December 6, 2006 214Document 5-B, Fred Kagan, “Choosing Victory,” January 5, 2007, American Enterprise Institute 217Document 5-C, Excerpts from U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual 220Document 5-D, Excerpts from “Iraq First: The National Security Strategy of Iraq,” Republic of Iraq – the Cabinet 221Document 5-E, Excerpts from President George W. Bush’s speech to the nation on the Iraq War, January 10, 2007 224Document 5-F, Excerpts from Senator Barack Obama’s speech before the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, April 23, 2007 2276 Obama’s War, 2009–2011 230Chronology 230The Planned Withdrawal 233Human Rights Concerns in Iraq 238Documents: 248Document 6-A, Status of Forces Agreement, 2008 248Document 6-B, Transcript of President Obama’s remarks, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, February 27, 2009 266Document 6-C, Excerpts from the Obama administration’s National Security Strategy, May 2010 274Document 6-D, U.S. State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, excerpts from Annual Human Rights Report, Iraq–2011 275Document 6-E, Speech at the White House by Prime Minister al-Maliki, December 21, 2011, Radio Free Iraq 277Epilogue: The Future 280List of Documents 284Suggestions for Additional Reading 289Index 292

Robert K. Brigham is the Shirley Ecker Boskey Professor of History and International Relations at Vassar College, USA. He is the author of numerous publications on American foreign relations including Iraq, Vietnam and the Limits of American Power (2008) and Is Iraq Another Vietnam? (2006).

• Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvDramatis Personae xviiMaps xxii1 The First Gulf War, 1990–1991 1Chronology 1George H.W. Bush and the New World Order 8Iraq Invades Kuwait 10Building the Coalition against Saddam 15Operation Desert Storm 20Documents: 29Document 1-A, Excerpts from National Security Directive 26, “U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf,” October 2, 1989 29Document 1-B, Meeting between Saddam Hussein and U.S. Ambassador April Glaspie, excerpts from April Glaspie memorandum, July 25, 1990 31Document 1-C, United Nations Resolution 660, August 2, 1990 33Document 1-D, United Nations Resolution 678, November 29, 1990 34Document 1-E, Excerpts from National Security Directive 54, January 15, 1991 35Document 1-F, Excerpts from speech by Saddam Hussein, February 11, 1991, Iraqi News Agency-Baghdad Radio 372 Clinton and Containment, 1992–2001 39Chronology 39Containment Plus 52Regime Change 54Documents: 64Document 2-A, Excerpts from United Nations Resolution 687, April 6, 1991 64Document 2-B, Excerpts from “Intelligence Successes and Failures in Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm,” U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services, 103rd Congress, 1st session, August 1993 73Document 2-C, Excerpts from the remarks of Anthony Lake, assistant to the president for national security affairs, “From Containment to Enlargement,” Johns Hopkins University, School of Advanced International Studies, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1993 74Document 2-D, Remarks of the Honorable Ibrahim M. Al-Shaheen, deputy chairman of the Kuwaiti National Committee for P.O.W.s in Iraq, August 6, 2006, U.S. House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations 80Document 2-E, Letter dated May 5, 2001, from the permanent representative of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the secretary general, United Nations, New York 81Document 2-F, Text of President Clinton’s address to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Pentagon staff, Washington, D.C., February 17, 1998 84Document 2-G, Project for a New American Century, Statement of Principles, June 3, 1997 903 The Invasion of Iraq, 2003 93Chronology 93Connecting Terrorists to Iraq 96The Bush Doctrine 100The Legal Debate 109The War Plan 111The War Begins 114Documents: 120Document 3-A, Excerpts from George W. Bush’s State of the Union address, January 29, 2002 120Document 3-B, Excerpts from “The National Security of the United States of America,” September 2002 122Document 3-C, “The Problem of the Shia,” July 2002 123Document 3-D, Unclassifi ed report to Congress on the acquisition of technology relating to weapons of mass destruction and advanced conventional munitions, July 1–December 2002 136Document 3-E, Excerpts from H.J. 114, Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 107th Congress, 2nd session, October 2, 2002 138Document 3-F, “The Downing Street Memo,” from Matthew Rycroft, private secretary to Prime Minister Tony Blair, to David Manning, British ambassador to the United States, July 23, 2002 141Document 3-G, Excerpts from U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell’s presentation at the United Nations Security Council, February 6, 2003 144Document 3-H, U.S. ambassador to the United Nations John Negroponte’s letter to Ambassador Mamady Traore, president of the United Nations Security Council, March 20, 2003 1464 The Deadliest Fighting, 2003–2006 148Chronology 148The Battle of Fallujah 150Human Rights and Abu Ghraib 156The Coalition Provisional Authority 159General Casey and the Iraqi Civil War 164Documents: 172Document 4-A, Excerpts from Coalition Provisional Authority briefi ng with General John Abizaid, commander, U.S. Central Command, and Lt. General Ricardo Sanchez, commander, CJTF-7, April 12, 2004 172Document 4-B, Excerpts from memorandum for William J. Haynes II, general counsel of the Department of Defense, “Military Interrogation of Alien Unlawful Combatants Held Outside the United States,” March 14, 2003, U.S. Department of Justice, Offi ce of Legal Counsel 173Document 4-C, Testimony of Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld before the Senate and House Armed Services Committees, 7 May 2004 175Document 4-D, Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number One: “De-Baathifi cation of Iraqi Security,” Coalition Provisional Authority, Baghdad, Iraq, May 16, 2003 181Document 4-E, Excerpts from the Constitution of Iraq, October 2005, Iraqi News Agency 182Document 4-F, Excerpts from “National Strategy for Victory in Iraq,” National Security Council, November 30, 2005 1875 The Surge, 2006–2008 190Chronology 190A Change in Tactics 197Surging in Iraq 202Domestic Critics of the Surge 205Documents: 214Document 5-A, Excerpts from the Iraq Study Group Report, December 6, 2006 214Document 5-B, Fred Kagan, “Choosing Victory,” January 5, 2007, American Enterprise Institute 217Document 5-C, Excerpts from U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual 220Document 5-D, Excerpts from “Iraq First: The National Security Strategy of Iraq,” Republic of Iraq – the Cabinet 221Document 5-E, Excerpts from President George W. Bush’s speech to the nation on the Iraq War, January 10, 2007 224Document 5-F, Excerpts from Senator Barack Obama’s speech before the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, April 23, 2007 2276 Obama’s War, 2009–2011 230Chronology 230The Planned Withdrawal 233Human Rights Concerns in Iraq 238Documents: 248Document 6-A, Status of Forces Agreement, 2008 248Document 6-B, Transcript of President Obama’s remarks, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, February 27, 2009 266Document 6-C, Excerpts from the Obama administration’s National Security Strategy, May 2010 274Document 6-D, U.S. State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, excerpts from Annual Human Rights Report, Iraq–2011 275Document 6-E, Speech at the White House by Prime Minister al-Maliki, December 21, 2011, Radio Free Iraq 277Epilogue: The Future 280List of Documents 284Suggestions for Additional Reading 289Index 292