Dr Philip R. Ashurst, Ashurst and Associates, Consulting Chemists to the Food Industry, Ludlow, UK.

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• Contributors xvPreface xvi1 Introduction 1P.R. Ashurst1.1 Overview 11.2 Soft drinks 11.2.1 Ready‐to‐drink products 21.2.2 Concentrated soft drinks 21.2.3 Legislation 31.2.4 Product types 41.2.5 Development trends 61.2.6 Nutrition 71.2.7 New product trends 81.3 Fruit juices 81.3.1 Processing technology 91.3.2 Adulteration 101.3.3 Other processes 121.3.4 Nutrition 121.4 Packaging 131.5 Summary 14References and further reading 142 Trends in beverage markets 15E.C. Renfrew2.1 Introduction 152.2 Definitions 152.3 Beverage consumption trends 162.3.1 Bottled water 172.3.2 Carbonated soft drinks 172.3.3 100% juices nectars and fruit drinks 192.3.4 Energy drinks 192.3.5 Ready‐to‐drink (RTD) tea and ready‐to‐drink coffee 202.3.6 Coffee 202.3.7 Tea 212.3.8 Beer 212.3.9 Wine 222.3.10 Milk and flavoured milks 222.4 Consumption charts 232.5 Regions and markets 252.6 Market share charts 262.7 Main drivers in consumption 282.7.1 The search for ‘natural’ 282.7.2 Adult soft drinks 292.7.3 Protein drinks 292.8 Conclusion 293 Fruit and juice processing 31B. Taylor3.1 Introduction 313.2 Fruit types 323.2.1 Botanical aspects and classification of fruit types 323.2.2 Harvesting considerations for berry citrus pome stone and exotic fruits 353.3 Fruit types for processing 363.3.1 Pome fruits 363.3.2 Citrus fruits 383.4 General comments on fruit juice processing 393.4.1 Processing of ‘fleshy’ fruits 403.4.2 The use of enzymes in fruit juice processing 433.4.3 Extraction of citrus juices 463.5 Juice processing following extraction ‘cleaning’ and clarification 483.5.1 Juice concentration by evaporation 493.5.2 Freeze concentration 503.5.3 Hyper‐ and ultrafiltration 503.6 Volatile components 513.6.1 Spinning cone column 523.6.2 Composition of fruit juice volatiles 533.7 Legislative concerns 543.7.1 European fruit juice and nectars directive and associated regulations 543.7.2 AIJN Guidelines 563.7.3 Labelling regulations and authenticity 573.7.4 Juice in the diet – ‘five‐a‐day’ 583.8 Quality issues 583.8.1 Absolute requirements 583.9 In conclusion 62References and further reading 644 Water and the soft drinks industry 65T. Griffiths4.1 Usage of water in the industry 654.2 Sources of water 664.2.1 Water cycle 664.2.2 Surface water 674.2.3 Ground water 674.3 Quality standards relating to water 684.3.1 UK legislative standards 684.3.2 Internal and customer standards 684.4 Processing water 694.4.1 Required quality 694.4.2 Starting quality 724.4.3 Processing options 754.5 Analytical and microbiological testing of water 834.5.1 Chemical tests 834.5.2 Microbiological tests 844.6 Effluents 844.6.1 Potential contaminants of water waste 844.6.2 Use of ‘grey’ water 854.6.3 Clean‐up and reuse of effluents 85Further reading 87References 875 Other beverage ingredients 88B. Taylor5.1 Introduction 885.2 Factors influencing development of the industry 885.3 The move towards standardisation 915.4 The constituents of a soft drink 945.5 Water 945.5.1 Requirements 945.5.2 Quality of fresh water 965.5.3 Water hardness 965.5.4 Water treatment 965.5.5 Water impurities and their effect 975.6 Acidulents 985.6.1 Citric acid 985.6.2 Tartaric acid 995.6.3 Phosphoric acid 1005.6.4 Lactic acid 1015.6.5 Acetic acid 1015.6.6 Malic acid 1015.6.7 Fumaric acid 1015.6.8 Ascorbic acid 1025.7 Flavourings 1025.7.1 Flavourings and legislation 1045.7.2 Flavourings in beverage application 1065.7.3 Water‐miscible flavourings 1065.7.4 Water‐dispersible flavourings 1075.8 Colours 1125.9 Preservatives 1155.9.1 Microorganisms and beverages 1165.9.2 Sulphur dioxide 1175.9.3 Benzoic acid and benzoates 1195.9.4 Sorbic acid and sorbates 1195.10 Other functional ingredients 1205.10.1 Stabilisers 1205.10.2 Saponins 1205.10.3 Antioxidants 1215.10.4 Calcium disodium EDTA 1215.11 Food safety 1225.12 Future trends 123Further reading and references 1256 Non‐carbonated beverages 126P.R. Ashurst6.1 Introduction 1266.2 Dilutable beverages 1276.2.1 Overview 1276.2.2 Nomenclature 1276.2.3 Ingredients 1286.2.4 Manufacturing operations 1376.2.5 Filling and packaging 1396.2.6 Product range 1406.3 Ready‐to‐drink non‐carbonated products 1406.3.1 Overview 1406.3.2 Formulations 1406.3.3 Special problems 1406.3.4 Manufacturing and packing 1416.3.5 Packaging types 1426.4 Fruit juices and nectars 1426.4.1 Processing 1426.4.2 Packaging 144Further reading 1457 Carbonated beverages 146D. Steen7.1 Introduction 1467.2 Carbon dioxide 1477.3 Carbon dioxide production 1487.3.1 Fermentation 1487.3.2 Direct combustion 1487.3.3 Quality standards 1497.3.4 Delivery to the customer 1497.3.5 Precautions 1507.4 Carbonation 1527.4.1 Basic considerations 1527.4.2 Carbonation measurement 1547.5 Syrup preparation 1567.6 De‐aeration 1577.7 Carbonators 1587.8 Filling principles 1607.8.1 Gravity filler 1617.8.2 Counter‐pressure filler 1637.8.3 Other filler types 1677.8.4 Clean‐in‐place systems 1697.9 Process control 1717.10 Future trends 172Further reading 1738 Processing and packaging 174R.A.W. Lea8.1 Introduction 1748.2 Juice extraction 1748.3 Blending 1758.3.1 Batch blending 1768.3.2 Flip‐flop blending 1768.3.3 Continuous blending 1768.4 Processing 1778.4.1 Flash pasteurisation 1778.4.2 Hot filling 1788.4.3 In‐pack pasteurisation 1798.4.4 Aseptic filling 1798.4.5 Chilled distribution 1818.4.6 Summary 1818.5 Control of process plant 1818.6 Factory layout and operation 1828.7 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points 1868.8 Good manufacturing practice 1868.9 Cleaning in place 1878.10 Packaging 1888.11 Conclusion 1919 Packaging materials 192D. Rose9.1 Introduction 1929.2 Commercial and technical considerations 1939.2.1 General considerations 1939.2.2 Packaging materials 1959.3 Processing 1979.3.1 Cold‐filling 1979.3.2 In‐pack pasteurising 1979.3.3 Hot‐filling 1989.3.4 Aseptic filling of bottles 1989.3.5 Liquid nitrogen injection 2029.4 Bottles 2029.4.1 Glass 2029.4.2 Polyethylene terephthalate 2039.4.3 High‐density polyethylene 2079.4.4 Polypropylene 2079.4.5 Polyvinyl chloride 2079.4.6 Plastic properties 2089.5 Closures 2099.5.1 Metal roll‐on or roll‐on pilfer‐proof closures 2099.5.2 Vacuum seal closures 2109.5.3 Plastic closures 2119.5.4 Crown corks 2139.6 Cans 2139.6.1 Metal bottles 2189.6.2 Plastic cans 2189.7 Cartons 2189.8 Flexible pouches 2219.9 Multipacks 2229.10 Secondary packaging 2239.11 Pack decoration 2249.12 Environmental considerations 2259.13 Conclusions 228Acknowledgements 23010 Analysis of soft drinks and fruit juices 231D.A. Hammond10.1 Introduction 23110.2 Laboratory accreditation 23410.3 Sensory evaluation 23610.4 Water 23710.5 Sweeteners 23910.5.1 Analysis of natural sweeteners 24010.5.2 Analysis of high‐intensity sweeteners 24510.6 Preservatives 24910.6.1 Benzoic and sorbic acids 24910.6.2 Sulphur dioxide 25110.6.3 Dimethyldicarbonate 25210.7 Acidulants 25210.8 Carbonation 25610.9 Miscellaneous additives 25710.9.1 Caffeine 25710.9.2 Quinine 25810.9.3 Other additives 25810.9.4 Fibre analysis 25910.9.5 Herbal drinks 26010.9.6 Osmolality 26110.10 Analysis of colours used in soft drinks 26110.10.1 Assessment of colour 26310.10.2 Synthetic colours 26510.10.3 Natural pigments 26710.11 Vitamin analysis in soft drinks systems 27210.11.1 Fat‐soluble vitamins 27410.11.2 Vitamin B class 27410.11.3 Vitamin C 27510.11.4 Vitamin analysis using immunological procedures 27510.12 Methods used to detect juice adulteration 27610.13 Methods used to assess the juice or fruit content of soft drinks 28010.14 Conclusions 282References 28311 Microbiology of soft drinks and fruit juices 290P. Wareing11.1 Introduction 29011.2 Composition of soft drinks and fruit juices in relation to spoilage 29111.3 Background microbiology – spoilage 29311.3.1 Sources 29311.3.2 Yeasts 29411.3.3 Bacteria 29511.3.4 Moulds 29711.4 Microbiological safety problems 29911.4.1 Escherichia coli 29911.4.2 Salmonella 29911.5 Preservation and control measures 29911.6 Sampling for microbial problems 30111.7 Identification schemes and interpretation 30111.7.1 Sample isolation 30111.7.2 Non‐molecular methods 30211.7.3 Molecular identification 30211.8 Brief spoilage case studies 30311.9 Conclusions 304References 306Further reading 30912 Functional drinks containing herbal extracts 310E.F. Shaw and S. Charters12.1 History 31012.2 The extraction process 31312.2.1 Extraction heritage 31412.3 An extraction operation 32012.3.1 Raw materials 32112.3.2 Extraction 32312.3.3 Organic extracts 32912.3.4 Extract costs 32912.4 Extract characteristics and their problems 33112.4.1 Specifications 33112.4.2 Stability 33112.4.3 Hazing 33212.4.4 Availability 33312.5 Incorporation of extracts in beverages 33312.5.1 Fruit juice‐based and fruit‐flavoured drinks 33312.5.2 Mineral‐water based and flavoured water drinks 33412.5.3 Carbonated and dilutable drinks 33412.5.4 Energy and sports drinks 33412.5.5 Regulatory issues 33512.6 Some commonly used herbs 337References 35413 Miscellaneous topics 356P.R. Ashurst and Q. Palmer13.1 Introduction 35613.2 Nutrition 35613.2.1 Nutritional components 35713.2.2 Calculation and declaration of nutrition information 36013.3 Sports drinks 36313.3.1 Definition and purpose 36313.3.2 Physiological needs 36313.3.3 The absorption of drinks 36513.3.4 Formulation 36613.4 Niche drinks 36913.4.1 Alcoholic‐type drinks 36913.4.2 Energy drinks 37013.4.3 Functional drinks or nutraceuticals 37113.4.4 Powder drinks 37213.5 Dispensed soft drinks and juices 37213.5.1 Introduction 37213.5.2 Pre‐mix and post‐mix compared 37313.5.3 Equipment 37313.5.4 Outlets 37513.5.5 Hygiene 37513.5.6 Post‐mix syrup formulation 37613.5.7 Post‐mix syrup packaging 37713.6 Ingredient specifications 37813.6.1 Why have specifications? 37813.6.2 What a specification should include 37813.6.3 Preparation of a specification 37813.6.4 Supplier performance 37913.7 Complaints and enquiries 38013.7.1 Complaints 38013.7.2 Enquiries 38213.8 Health issues 38313.8.1 Soft drinks and dental damage 38313.8.2 Effect of colourings and preservatives 38613.8.3 Obesity 38713.9 Alternative processing methods 38813.9.1 Microwave pasteurisation technology 38813.9.2 High‐pressure processing 39313.9.3 Irradiation 395References 396Index 398

Dr Philip R. Ashurst, Ashurst and Associates, Consulting Chemists to the Food Industry, Ludlow, UK.

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• Contributors xvPreface xvi1 Introduction 1P.R. Ashurst1.1 Overview 11.2 Soft drinks 11.2.1 Ready‐to‐drink products 21.2.2 Concentrated soft drinks 21.2.3 Legislation 31.2.4 Product types 41.2.5 Development trends 61.2.6 Nutrition 71.2.7 New product trends 81.3 Fruit juices 81.3.1 Processing technology 91.3.2 Adulteration 101.3.3 Other processes 121.3.4 Nutrition 121.4 Packaging 131.5 Summary 14References and further reading 142 Trends in beverage markets 15E.C. Renfrew2.1 Introduction 152.2 Definitions 152.3 Beverage consumption trends 162.3.1 Bottled water 172.3.2 Carbonated soft drinks 172.3.3 100% juices nectars and fruit drinks 192.3.4 Energy drinks 192.3.5 Ready‐to‐drink (RTD) tea and ready‐to‐drink coffee 202.3.6 Coffee 202.3.7 Tea 212.3.8 Beer 212.3.9 Wine 222.3.10 Milk and flavoured milks 222.4 Consumption charts 232.5 Regions and markets 252.6 Market share charts 262.7 Main drivers in consumption 282.7.1 The search for ‘natural’ 282.7.2 Adult soft drinks 292.7.3 Protein drinks 292.8 Conclusion 293 Fruit and juice processing 31B. Taylor3.1 Introduction 313.2 Fruit types 323.2.1 Botanical aspects and classification of fruit types 323.2.2 Harvesting considerations for berry citrus pome stone and exotic fruits 353.3 Fruit types for processing 363.3.1 Pome fruits 363.3.2 Citrus fruits 383.4 General comments on fruit juice processing 393.4.1 Processing of ‘fleshy’ fruits 403.4.2 The use of enzymes in fruit juice processing 433.4.3 Extraction of citrus juices 463.5 Juice processing following extraction ‘cleaning’ and clarification 483.5.1 Juice concentration by evaporation 493.5.2 Freeze concentration 503.5.3 Hyper‐ and ultrafiltration 503.6 Volatile components 513.6.1 Spinning cone column 523.6.2 Composition of fruit juice volatiles 533.7 Legislative concerns 543.7.1 European fruit juice and nectars directive and associated regulations 543.7.2 AIJN Guidelines 563.7.3 Labelling regulations and authenticity 573.7.4 Juice in the diet – ‘five‐a‐day’ 583.8 Quality issues 583.8.1 Absolute requirements 583.9 In conclusion 62References and further reading 644 Water and the soft drinks industry 65T. Griffiths4.1 Usage of water in the industry 654.2 Sources of water 664.2.1 Water cycle 664.2.2 Surface water 674.2.3 Ground water 674.3 Quality standards relating to water 684.3.1 UK legislative standards 684.3.2 Internal and customer standards 684.4 Processing water 694.4.1 Required quality 694.4.2 Starting quality 724.4.3 Processing options 754.5 Analytical and microbiological testing of water 834.5.1 Chemical tests 834.5.2 Microbiological tests 844.6 Effluents 844.6.1 Potential contaminants of water waste 844.6.2 Use of ‘grey’ water 854.6.3 Clean‐up and reuse of effluents 85Further reading 87References 875 Other beverage ingredients 88B. Taylor5.1 Introduction 885.2 Factors influencing development of the industry 885.3 The move towards standardisation 915.4 The constituents of a soft drink 945.5 Water 945.5.1 Requirements 945.5.2 Quality of fresh water 965.5.3 Water hardness 965.5.4 Water treatment 965.5.5 Water impurities and their effect 975.6 Acidulents 985.6.1 Citric acid 985.6.2 Tartaric acid 995.6.3 Phosphoric acid 1005.6.4 Lactic acid 1015.6.5 Acetic acid 1015.6.6 Malic acid 1015.6.7 Fumaric acid 1015.6.8 Ascorbic acid 1025.7 Flavourings 1025.7.1 Flavourings and legislation 1045.7.2 Flavourings in beverage application 1065.7.3 Water‐miscible flavourings 1065.7.4 Water‐dispersible flavourings 1075.8 Colours 1125.9 Preservatives 1155.9.1 Microorganisms and beverages 1165.9.2 Sulphur dioxide 1175.9.3 Benzoic acid and benzoates 1195.9.4 Sorbic acid and sorbates 1195.10 Other functional ingredients 1205.10.1 Stabilisers 1205.10.2 Saponins 1205.10.3 Antioxidants 1215.10.4 Calcium disodium EDTA 1215.11 Food safety 1225.12 Future trends 123Further reading and references 1256 Non‐carbonated beverages 126P.R. Ashurst6.1 Introduction 1266.2 Dilutable beverages 1276.2.1 Overview 1276.2.2 Nomenclature 1276.2.3 Ingredients 1286.2.4 Manufacturing operations 1376.2.5 Filling and packaging 1396.2.6 Product range 1406.3 Ready‐to‐drink non‐carbonated products 1406.3.1 Overview 1406.3.2 Formulations 1406.3.3 Special problems 1406.3.4 Manufacturing and packing 1416.3.5 Packaging types 1426.4 Fruit juices and nectars 1426.4.1 Processing 1426.4.2 Packaging 144Further reading 1457 Carbonated beverages 146D. Steen7.1 Introduction 1467.2 Carbon dioxide 1477.3 Carbon dioxide production 1487.3.1 Fermentation 1487.3.2 Direct combustion 1487.3.3 Quality standards 1497.3.4 Delivery to the customer 1497.3.5 Precautions 1507.4 Carbonation 1527.4.1 Basic considerations 1527.4.2 Carbonation measurement 1547.5 Syrup preparation 1567.6 De‐aeration 1577.7 Carbonators 1587.8 Filling principles 1607.8.1 Gravity filler 1617.8.2 Counter‐pressure filler 1637.8.3 Other filler types 1677.8.4 Clean‐in‐place systems 1697.9 Process control 1717.10 Future trends 172Further reading 1738 Processing and packaging 174R.A.W. Lea8.1 Introduction 1748.2 Juice extraction 1748.3 Blending 1758.3.1 Batch blending 1768.3.2 Flip‐flop blending 1768.3.3 Continuous blending 1768.4 Processing 1778.4.1 Flash pasteurisation 1778.4.2 Hot filling 1788.4.3 In‐pack pasteurisation 1798.4.4 Aseptic filling 1798.4.5 Chilled distribution 1818.4.6 Summary 1818.5 Control of process plant 1818.6 Factory layout and operation 1828.7 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points 1868.8 Good manufacturing practice 1868.9 Cleaning in place 1878.10 Packaging 1888.11 Conclusion 1919 Packaging materials 192D. Rose9.1 Introduction 1929.2 Commercial and technical considerations 1939.2.1 General considerations 1939.2.2 Packaging materials 1959.3 Processing 1979.3.1 Cold‐filling 1979.3.2 In‐pack pasteurising 1979.3.3 Hot‐filling 1989.3.4 Aseptic filling of bottles 1989.3.5 Liquid nitrogen injection 2029.4 Bottles 2029.4.1 Glass 2029.4.2 Polyethylene terephthalate 2039.4.3 High‐density polyethylene 2079.4.4 Polypropylene 2079.4.5 Polyvinyl chloride 2079.4.6 Plastic properties 2089.5 Closures 2099.5.1 Metal roll‐on or roll‐on pilfer‐proof closures 2099.5.2 Vacuum seal closures 2109.5.3 Plastic closures 2119.5.4 Crown corks 2139.6 Cans 2139.6.1 Metal bottles 2189.6.2 Plastic cans 2189.7 Cartons 2189.8 Flexible pouches 2219.9 Multipacks 2229.10 Secondary packaging 2239.11 Pack decoration 2249.12 Environmental considerations 2259.13 Conclusions 228Acknowledgements 23010 Analysis of soft drinks and fruit juices 231D.A. Hammond10.1 Introduction 23110.2 Laboratory accreditation 23410.3 Sensory evaluation 23610.4 Water 23710.5 Sweeteners 23910.5.1 Analysis of natural sweeteners 24010.5.2 Analysis of high‐intensity sweeteners 24510.6 Preservatives 24910.6.1 Benzoic and sorbic acids 24910.6.2 Sulphur dioxide 25110.6.3 Dimethyldicarbonate 25210.7 Acidulants 25210.8 Carbonation 25610.9 Miscellaneous additives 25710.9.1 Caffeine 25710.9.2 Quinine 25810.9.3 Other additives 25810.9.4 Fibre analysis 25910.9.5 Herbal drinks 26010.9.6 Osmolality 26110.10 Analysis of colours used in soft drinks 26110.10.1 Assessment of colour 26310.10.2 Synthetic colours 26510.10.3 Natural pigments 26710.11 Vitamin analysis in soft drinks systems 27210.11.1 Fat‐soluble vitamins 27410.11.2 Vitamin B class 27410.11.3 Vitamin C 27510.11.4 Vitamin analysis using immunological procedures 27510.12 Methods used to detect juice adulteration 27610.13 Methods used to assess the juice or fruit content of soft drinks 28010.14 Conclusions 282References 28311 Microbiology of soft drinks and fruit juices 290P. Wareing11.1 Introduction 29011.2 Composition of soft drinks and fruit juices in relation to spoilage 29111.3 Background microbiology – spoilage 29311.3.1 Sources 29311.3.2 Yeasts 29411.3.3 Bacteria 29511.3.4 Moulds 29711.4 Microbiological safety problems 29911.4.1 Escherichia coli 29911.4.2 Salmonella 29911.5 Preservation and control measures 29911.6 Sampling for microbial problems 30111.7 Identification schemes and interpretation 30111.7.1 Sample isolation 30111.7.2 Non‐molecular methods 30211.7.3 Molecular identification 30211.8 Brief spoilage case studies 30311.9 Conclusions 304References 306Further reading 30912 Functional drinks containing herbal extracts 310E.F. Shaw and S. Charters12.1 History 31012.2 The extraction process 31312.2.1 Extraction heritage 31412.3 An extraction operation 32012.3.1 Raw materials 32112.3.2 Extraction 32312.3.3 Organic extracts 32912.3.4 Extract costs 32912.4 Extract characteristics and their problems 33112.4.1 Specifications 33112.4.2 Stability 33112.4.3 Hazing 33212.4.4 Availability 33312.5 Incorporation of extracts in beverages 33312.5.1 Fruit juice‐based and fruit‐flavoured drinks 33312.5.2 Mineral‐water based and flavoured water drinks 33412.5.3 Carbonated and dilutable drinks 33412.5.4 Energy and sports drinks 33412.5.5 Regulatory issues 33512.6 Some commonly used herbs 337References 35413 Miscellaneous topics 356P.R. Ashurst and Q. Palmer13.1 Introduction 35613.2 Nutrition 35613.2.1 Nutritional components 35713.2.2 Calculation and declaration of nutrition information 36013.3 Sports drinks 36313.3.1 Definition and purpose 36313.3.2 Physiological needs 36313.3.3 The absorption of drinks 36513.3.4 Formulation 36613.4 Niche drinks 36913.4.1 Alcoholic‐type drinks 36913.4.2 Energy drinks 37013.4.3 Functional drinks or nutraceuticals 37113.4.4 Powder drinks 37213.5 Dispensed soft drinks and juices 37213.5.1 Introduction 37213.5.2 Pre‐mix and post‐mix compared 37313.5.3 Equipment 37313.5.4 Outlets 37513.5.5 Hygiene 37513.5.6 Post‐mix syrup formulation 37613.5.7 Post‐mix syrup packaging 37713.6 Ingredient specifications 37813.6.1 Why have specifications? 37813.6.2 What a specification should include 37813.6.3 Preparation of a specification 37813.6.4 Supplier performance 37913.7 Complaints and enquiries 38013.7.1 Complaints 38013.7.2 Enquiries 38213.8 Health issues 38313.8.1 Soft drinks and dental damage 38313.8.2 Effect of colourings and preservatives 38613.8.3 Obesity 38713.9 Alternative processing methods 38813.9.1 Microwave pasteurisation technology 38813.9.2 High‐pressure processing 39313.9.3 Irradiation 395References 396Index 398

Dr Philip R. Ashurst, Ashurst and Associates, Consulting Chemists to the Food Industry, Ludlow, UK.

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• Contributors xvPreface xvi1 Introduction 1P.R. Ashurst1.1 Overview 11.2 Soft drinks 11.2.1 Ready‐to‐drink products 21.2.2 Concentrated soft drinks 21.2.3 Legislation 31.2.4 Product types 41.2.5 Development trends 61.2.6 Nutrition 71.2.7 New product trends 81.3 Fruit juices 81.3.1 Processing technology 91.3.2 Adulteration 101.3.3 Other processes 121.3.4 Nutrition 121.4 Packaging 131.5 Summary 14References and further reading 142 Trends in beverage markets 15E.C. Renfrew2.1 Introduction 152.2 Definitions 152.3 Beverage consumption trends 162.3.1 Bottled water 172.3.2 Carbonated soft drinks 172.3.3 100% juices nectars and fruit drinks 192.3.4 Energy drinks 192.3.5 Ready‐to‐drink (RTD) tea and ready‐to‐drink coffee 202.3.6 Coffee 202.3.7 Tea 212.3.8 Beer 212.3.9 Wine 222.3.10 Milk and flavoured milks 222.4 Consumption charts 232.5 Regions and markets 252.6 Market share charts 262.7 Main drivers in consumption 282.7.1 The search for ‘natural’ 282.7.2 Adult soft drinks 292.7.3 Protein drinks 292.8 Conclusion 293 Fruit and juice processing 31B. Taylor3.1 Introduction 313.2 Fruit types 323.2.1 Botanical aspects and classification of fruit types 323.2.2 Harvesting considerations for berry citrus pome stone and exotic fruits 353.3 Fruit types for processing 363.3.1 Pome fruits 363.3.2 Citrus fruits 383.4 General comments on fruit juice processing 393.4.1 Processing of ‘fleshy’ fruits 403.4.2 The use of enzymes in fruit juice processing 433.4.3 Extraction of citrus juices 463.5 Juice processing following extraction ‘cleaning’ and clarification 483.5.1 Juice concentration by evaporation 493.5.2 Freeze concentration 503.5.3 Hyper‐ and ultrafiltration 503.6 Volatile components 513.6.1 Spinning cone column 523.6.2 Composition of fruit juice volatiles 533.7 Legislative concerns 543.7.1 European fruit juice and nectars directive and associated regulations 543.7.2 AIJN Guidelines 563.7.3 Labelling regulations and authenticity 573.7.4 Juice in the diet – ‘five‐a‐day’ 583.8 Quality issues 583.8.1 Absolute requirements 583.9 In conclusion 62References and further reading 644 Water and the soft drinks industry 65T. Griffiths4.1 Usage of water in the industry 654.2 Sources of water 664.2.1 Water cycle 664.2.2 Surface water 674.2.3 Ground water 674.3 Quality standards relating to water 684.3.1 UK legislative standards 684.3.2 Internal and customer standards 684.4 Processing water 694.4.1 Required quality 694.4.2 Starting quality 724.4.3 Processing options 754.5 Analytical and microbiological testing of water 834.5.1 Chemical tests 834.5.2 Microbiological tests 844.6 Effluents 844.6.1 Potential contaminants of water waste 844.6.2 Use of ‘grey’ water 854.6.3 Clean‐up and reuse of effluents 85Further reading 87References 875 Other beverage ingredients 88B. Taylor5.1 Introduction 885.2 Factors influencing development of the industry 885.3 The move towards standardisation 915.4 The constituents of a soft drink 945.5 Water 945.5.1 Requirements 945.5.2 Quality of fresh water 965.5.3 Water hardness 965.5.4 Water treatment 965.5.5 Water impurities and their effect 975.6 Acidulents 985.6.1 Citric acid 985.6.2 Tartaric acid 995.6.3 Phosphoric acid 1005.6.4 Lactic acid 1015.6.5 Acetic acid 1015.6.6 Malic acid 1015.6.7 Fumaric acid 1015.6.8 Ascorbic acid 1025.7 Flavourings 1025.7.1 Flavourings and legislation 1045.7.2 Flavourings in beverage application 1065.7.3 Water‐miscible flavourings 1065.7.4 Water‐dispersible flavourings 1075.8 Colours 1125.9 Preservatives 1155.9.1 Microorganisms and beverages 1165.9.2 Sulphur dioxide 1175.9.3 Benzoic acid and benzoates 1195.9.4 Sorbic acid and sorbates 1195.10 Other functional ingredients 1205.10.1 Stabilisers 1205.10.2 Saponins 1205.10.3 Antioxidants 1215.10.4 Calcium disodium EDTA 1215.11 Food safety 1225.12 Future trends 123Further reading and references 1256 Non‐carbonated beverages 126P.R. Ashurst6.1 Introduction 1266.2 Dilutable beverages 1276.2.1 Overview 1276.2.2 Nomenclature 1276.2.3 Ingredients 1286.2.4 Manufacturing operations 1376.2.5 Filling and packaging 1396.2.6 Product range 1406.3 Ready‐to‐drink non‐carbonated products 1406.3.1 Overview 1406.3.2 Formulations 1406.3.3 Special problems 1406.3.4 Manufacturing and packing 1416.3.5 Packaging types 1426.4 Fruit juices and nectars 1426.4.1 Processing 1426.4.2 Packaging 144Further reading 1457 Carbonated beverages 146D. Steen7.1 Introduction 1467.2 Carbon dioxide 1477.3 Carbon dioxide production 1487.3.1 Fermentation 1487.3.2 Direct combustion 1487.3.3 Quality standards 1497.3.4 Delivery to the customer 1497.3.5 Precautions 1507.4 Carbonation 1527.4.1 Basic considerations 1527.4.2 Carbonation measurement 1547.5 Syrup preparation 1567.6 De‐aeration 1577.7 Carbonators 1587.8 Filling principles 1607.8.1 Gravity filler 1617.8.2 Counter‐pressure filler 1637.8.3 Other filler types 1677.8.4 Clean‐in‐place systems 1697.9 Process control 1717.10 Future trends 172Further reading 1738 Processing and packaging 174R.A.W. Lea8.1 Introduction 1748.2 Juice extraction 1748.3 Blending 1758.3.1 Batch blending 1768.3.2 Flip‐flop blending 1768.3.3 Continuous blending 1768.4 Processing 1778.4.1 Flash pasteurisation 1778.4.2 Hot filling 1788.4.3 In‐pack pasteurisation 1798.4.4 Aseptic filling 1798.4.5 Chilled distribution 1818.4.6 Summary 1818.5 Control of process plant 1818.6 Factory layout and operation 1828.7 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points 1868.8 Good manufacturing practice 1868.9 Cleaning in place 1878.10 Packaging 1888.11 Conclusion 1919 Packaging materials 192D. Rose9.1 Introduction 1929.2 Commercial and technical considerations 1939.2.1 General considerations 1939.2.2 Packaging materials 1959.3 Processing 1979.3.1 Cold‐filling 1979.3.2 In‐pack pasteurising 1979.3.3 Hot‐filling 1989.3.4 Aseptic filling of bottles 1989.3.5 Liquid nitrogen injection 2029.4 Bottles 2029.4.1 Glass 2029.4.2 Polyethylene terephthalate 2039.4.3 High‐density polyethylene 2079.4.4 Polypropylene 2079.4.5 Polyvinyl chloride 2079.4.6 Plastic properties 2089.5 Closures 2099.5.1 Metal roll‐on or roll‐on pilfer‐proof closures 2099.5.2 Vacuum seal closures 2109.5.3 Plastic closures 2119.5.4 Crown corks 2139.6 Cans 2139.6.1 Metal bottles 2189.6.2 Plastic cans 2189.7 Cartons 2189.8 Flexible pouches 2219.9 Multipacks 2229.10 Secondary packaging 2239.11 Pack decoration 2249.12 Environmental considerations 2259.13 Conclusions 228Acknowledgements 23010 Analysis of soft drinks and fruit juices 231D.A. Hammond10.1 Introduction 23110.2 Laboratory accreditation 23410.3 Sensory evaluation 23610.4 Water 23710.5 Sweeteners 23910.5.1 Analysis of natural sweeteners 24010.5.2 Analysis of high‐intensity sweeteners 24510.6 Preservatives 24910.6.1 Benzoic and sorbic acids 24910.6.2 Sulphur dioxide 25110.6.3 Dimethyldicarbonate 25210.7 Acidulants 25210.8 Carbonation 25610.9 Miscellaneous additives 25710.9.1 Caffeine 25710.9.2 Quinine 25810.9.3 Other additives 25810.9.4 Fibre analysis 25910.9.5 Herbal drinks 26010.9.6 Osmolality 26110.10 Analysis of colours used in soft drinks 26110.10.1 Assessment of colour 26310.10.2 Synthetic colours 26510.10.3 Natural pigments 26710.11 Vitamin analysis in soft drinks systems 27210.11.1 Fat‐soluble vitamins 27410.11.2 Vitamin B class 27410.11.3 Vitamin C 27510.11.4 Vitamin analysis using immunological procedures 27510.12 Methods used to detect juice adulteration 27610.13 Methods used to assess the juice or fruit content of soft drinks 28010.14 Conclusions 282References 28311 Microbiology of soft drinks and fruit juices 290P. Wareing11.1 Introduction 29011.2 Composition of soft drinks and fruit juices in relation to spoilage 29111.3 Background microbiology – spoilage 29311.3.1 Sources 29311.3.2 Yeasts 29411.3.3 Bacteria 29511.3.4 Moulds 29711.4 Microbiological safety problems 29911.4.1 Escherichia coli 29911.4.2 Salmonella 29911.5 Preservation and control measures 29911.6 Sampling for microbial problems 30111.7 Identification schemes and interpretation 30111.7.1 Sample isolation 30111.7.2 Non‐molecular methods 30211.7.3 Molecular identification 30211.8 Brief spoilage case studies 30311.9 Conclusions 304References 306Further reading 30912 Functional drinks containing herbal extracts 310E.F. Shaw and S. Charters12.1 History 31012.2 The extraction process 31312.2.1 Extraction heritage 31412.3 An extraction operation 32012.3.1 Raw materials 32112.3.2 Extraction 32312.3.3 Organic extracts 32912.3.4 Extract costs 32912.4 Extract characteristics and their problems 33112.4.1 Specifications 33112.4.2 Stability 33112.4.3 Hazing 33212.4.4 Availability 33312.5 Incorporation of extracts in beverages 33312.5.1 Fruit juice‐based and fruit‐flavoured drinks 33312.5.2 Mineral‐water based and flavoured water drinks 33412.5.3 Carbonated and dilutable drinks 33412.5.4 Energy and sports drinks 33412.5.5 Regulatory issues 33512.6 Some commonly used herbs 337References 35413 Miscellaneous topics 356P.R. Ashurst and Q. Palmer13.1 Introduction 35613.2 Nutrition 35613.2.1 Nutritional components 35713.2.2 Calculation and declaration of nutrition information 36013.3 Sports drinks 36313.3.1 Definition and purpose 36313.3.2 Physiological needs 36313.3.3 The absorption of drinks 36513.3.4 Formulation 36613.4 Niche drinks 36913.4.1 Alcoholic‐type drinks 36913.4.2 Energy drinks 37013.4.3 Functional drinks or nutraceuticals 37113.4.4 Powder drinks 37213.5 Dispensed soft drinks and juices 37213.5.1 Introduction 37213.5.2 Pre‐mix and post‐mix compared 37313.5.3 Equipment 37313.5.4 Outlets 37513.5.5 Hygiene 37513.5.6 Post‐mix syrup formulation 37613.5.7 Post‐mix syrup packaging 37713.6 Ingredient specifications 37813.6.1 Why have specifications? 37813.6.2 What a specification should include 37813.6.3 Preparation of a specification 37813.6.4 Supplier performance 37913.7 Complaints and enquiries 38013.7.1 Complaints 38013.7.2 Enquiries 38213.8 Health issues 38313.8.1 Soft drinks and dental damage 38313.8.2 Effect of colourings and preservatives 38613.8.3 Obesity 38713.9 Alternative processing methods 38813.9.1 Microwave pasteurisation technology 38813.9.2 High‐pressure processing 39313.9.3 Irradiation 395References 396Index 398