Patrick Gilbert is Professor Emeritus at IAE Paris (Sorbonne Business School), France, and Research Director at the Mutations Anticipations Innovations Chair. He chairs the scientific committee of Cercle Innovation Management Expertise (CIME).Natalia Bobadilla is a senior lecturer in human resource management and strategy at the University of Rouen Normandy, France. Her research focuses on organizational and urban change, restructuring, creativity and R&D management. She is co-founder of CIME.Lise Gastaldi is a senior lecturer in management sciences at Aix-Marseille University (AMU), Faculty of Economics and Management, and a researcher at the Institute of Labor Economics and Industrial Sociology (LEST, UMR AMU-CNRS), France.Martine Le Boulaire is a management consultant and is the founder and General Secretary of CIME.Olga Lelebina is Professor at ISG International Business School, France. Her research focuses on the management of expertise and experts within technology companies. She is co-founder of CIME.

• Foreword ixAcknowledgments xiGeneral Introduction xiiiChapter 1. R&D and New Competitive Challenges: Between Intensive Innovation Strategy and Internationalization 11.1. Strategy and R&D 11.1.1. R&D’s place in business strategies 21.1.2. Different generations of R&D 41.2. Environmental factors influencing business strategies in R&D and their consequences 91.2.1. The major role of innovation in competition strategies 91.2.2. The emergence of the consumer in R&D 111.2.3. The effects of market globalization 151.3. R&D strategies tested overseas: the example of China 211.3.1. Western companies’ choice to locate their R&D in China 211.4. Conclusion 26Chapter 2. Work in R&D and its Transformations 292.1. Specifics of R&D work and its heterogeneity 292.1.1. Non-routine and knowledge intensive work 302.1.2. The work in R&D: between interactions and engagements with the surrounding environment 352.1.3. A job characterized by a certain degree of autonomy and occupational regulations382.2. The main transformations of R&D work since 1990 432.2.1. The advent of project management and of the concurrent engineering model 432.2.2. A job which is more interactive and more dependent on the downstream 482.2.3. Managerialization, bureaucratization and remoteness of technical work 522.3. Current tensions and open questions as to the future of work in R&D 562.3.1. Increasing pressure and strong focus in the short term: how sustainable is this in individual and collective terms? 562.3.2. Relocation, internationalization, outsourcing and open innovation: what is the future of R&D work? 612.3.3. The digital revolution: what is the impact on work in R&D? 642.4. Conclusion 67Chapter 3. Rationalization and Creativity: R&D under Pressure 693.1. Permanent rationalizations and reduction of available resources in R&D 703.1.1. The rationalization concept 703.1.2. R&D struggling with permanent rationalization 713.1.3. Rationalization as a slack reduction strategy 723.2. Creativity: between individual attribute and social process 773.2.1. Individual creativity 783.2.2. Creativity as an idea production process 813.2.3. Creativity as a social process 833.3. Ingredients and negative effects of slack reductions on creativity 843.3.1. Slack reduction components 853.3.2. Human slack reduction effects 853.3.3. “Financial slack” reduction effects 913.3.4. Temporal slack reduction effects 923.3.5. Spatial slack reduction effects 943.4. Mechanisms linking slack reduction and creativity 983.4.1. Focus of attention 983.4.2. Ability to “travel through time” 993.4.3. Support provided by the leader 1003.5. Conclusion 101Chapter 4. Managing R&D Professionals: HRM Practices and Current Challenges 1034.1. HRM and R&D: complex relationships 1034.1.1. R&D: a world that has long remained foreign to HRM regulations 1044.1.2. Recurrent tension between standardization and differentiation 1084.1.3. Project organization: a necessary source of adaptation of HRM in R&D 1104.2. HRM development in R&D today 1114.2.1. Strategic HR planning 1114.2.2. Recruitment and integration 1134.2.3. Assignments and mobility 1184.2.4. Individual assessment 1214.2.5. Remuneration 1244.2.6. Careers 1274.2.7. Competence management and training 1314.3. The new challenges of HRM in R&D 1334.3.1. Moving beyond an instrumental approach and adapting to the diversity of contexts 1344.3.2. Renewing (or reinventing) HRM in open innovation models 1354.3.3. Going beyond individualized HRM by integrating the collective dimension 1374.4. Conclusion 138Chapter 5. Collective Expertise: Forms and Methods of Management 1395.1. Collective expertise in R&D 1405.1.1. The dual facet of expertise: individual attribute and collective process 1405.1.2. Collective expertise and its current status 1415.2. Two forms of structuring: “horizontal” and “vertical” 1425.2.1. Horizontal structuring: interdisciplinary communities of expertise 1425.2.2. Vertical structuring: monodisciplinary communities of expertise5.3. Conclusion 157Chapter 6. Performance Management in R&D 1596.1. Performance in R&D 1596.1.1. A hard to define concept 1596.1.2. Management difficulties specific to R&D 1626.1.3. Performance challenges 1636.1.4. The delicate issue of measure 1646.2. Budgetary control of R&D departments 1696.3. Innovation project management control 1716.3.1. Economic assessment of projects: the two approaches 1716.3.2. Project management methods and tools 1756.4. Conclusion 181Bibliography 183Index 197

Patrick Gilbert is Professor Emeritus at IAE Paris (Sorbonne Business School), France, and Research Director at the Mutations Anticipations Innovations Chair. He chairs the scientific committee of Cercle Innovation Management Expertise (CIME).Natalia Bobadilla is a senior lecturer in human resource management and strategy at the University of Rouen Normandy, France. Her research focuses on organizational and urban change, restructuring, creativity and R&D management. She is co-founder of CIME.Lise Gastaldi is a senior lecturer in management sciences at Aix-Marseille University (AMU), Faculty of Economics and Management, and a researcher at the Institute of Labor Economics and Industrial Sociology (LEST, UMR AMU-CNRS), France.Martine Le Boulaire is a management consultant and is the founder and General Secretary of CIME.Olga Lelebina is Professor at ISG International Business School, France. Her research focuses on the management of expertise and experts within technology companies. She is co-founder of CIME.

• Foreword ixAcknowledgments xiGeneral Introduction xiiiChapter 1. R&D and New Competitive Challenges: Between Intensive Innovation Strategy and Internationalization 11.1. Strategy and R&D 11.1.1. R&D’s place in business strategies 21.1.2. Different generations of R&D 41.2. Environmental factors influencing business strategies in R&D and their consequences 91.2.1. The major role of innovation in competition strategies 91.2.2. The emergence of the consumer in R&D 111.2.3. The effects of market globalization 151.3. R&D strategies tested overseas: the example of China 211.3.1. Western companies’ choice to locate their R&D in China 211.4. Conclusion 26Chapter 2. Work in R&D and its Transformations 292.1. Specifics of R&D work and its heterogeneity 292.1.1. Non-routine and knowledge intensive work 302.1.2. The work in R&D: between interactions and engagements with the surrounding environment 352.1.3. A job characterized by a certain degree of autonomy and occupational regulations382.2. The main transformations of R&D work since 1990 432.2.1. The advent of project management and of the concurrent engineering model 432.2.2. A job which is more interactive and more dependent on the downstream 482.2.3. Managerialization, bureaucratization and remoteness of technical work 522.3. Current tensions and open questions as to the future of work in R&D 562.3.1. Increasing pressure and strong focus in the short term: how sustainable is this in individual and collective terms? 562.3.2. Relocation, internationalization, outsourcing and open innovation: what is the future of R&D work? 612.3.3. The digital revolution: what is the impact on work in R&D? 642.4. Conclusion 67Chapter 3. Rationalization and Creativity: R&D under Pressure 693.1. Permanent rationalizations and reduction of available resources in R&D 703.1.1. The rationalization concept 703.1.2. R&D struggling with permanent rationalization 713.1.3. Rationalization as a slack reduction strategy 723.2. Creativity: between individual attribute and social process 773.2.1. Individual creativity 783.2.2. Creativity as an idea production process 813.2.3. Creativity as a social process 833.3. Ingredients and negative effects of slack reductions on creativity 843.3.1. Slack reduction components 853.3.2. Human slack reduction effects 853.3.3. “Financial slack” reduction effects 913.3.4. Temporal slack reduction effects 923.3.5. Spatial slack reduction effects 943.4. Mechanisms linking slack reduction and creativity 983.4.1. Focus of attention 983.4.2. Ability to “travel through time” 993.4.3. Support provided by the leader 1003.5. Conclusion 101Chapter 4. Managing R&D Professionals: HRM Practices and Current Challenges 1034.1. HRM and R&D: complex relationships 1034.1.1. R&D: a world that has long remained foreign to HRM regulations 1044.1.2. Recurrent tension between standardization and differentiation 1084.1.3. Project organization: a necessary source of adaptation of HRM in R&D 1104.2. HRM development in R&D today 1114.2.1. Strategic HR planning 1114.2.2. Recruitment and integration 1134.2.3. Assignments and mobility 1184.2.4. Individual assessment 1214.2.5. Remuneration 1244.2.6. Careers 1274.2.7. Competence management and training 1314.3. The new challenges of HRM in R&D 1334.3.1. Moving beyond an instrumental approach and adapting to the diversity of contexts 1344.3.2. Renewing (or reinventing) HRM in open innovation models 1354.3.3. Going beyond individualized HRM by integrating the collective dimension 1374.4. Conclusion 138Chapter 5. Collective Expertise: Forms and Methods of Management 1395.1. Collective expertise in R&D 1405.1.1. The dual facet of expertise: individual attribute and collective process 1405.1.2. Collective expertise and its current status 1415.2. Two forms of structuring: “horizontal” and “vertical” 1425.2.1. Horizontal structuring: interdisciplinary communities of expertise 1425.2.2. Vertical structuring: monodisciplinary communities of expertise5.3. Conclusion 157Chapter 6. Performance Management in R&D 1596.1. Performance in R&D 1596.1.1. A hard to define concept 1596.1.2. Management difficulties specific to R&D 1626.1.3. Performance challenges 1636.1.4. The delicate issue of measure 1646.2. Budgetary control of R&D departments 1696.3. Innovation project management control 1716.3.1. Economic assessment of projects: the two approaches 1716.3.2. Project management methods and tools 1756.4. Conclusion 181Bibliography 183Index 197

Patrick Gilbert is Professor Emeritus at IAE Paris (Sorbonne Business School), France, and Research Director at the Mutations Anticipations Innovations Chair. He chairs the scientific committee of Cercle Innovation Management Expertise (CIME).Natalia Bobadilla is a senior lecturer in human resource management and strategy at the University of Rouen Normandy, France. Her research focuses on organizational and urban change, restructuring, creativity and R&D management. She is co-founder of CIME.Lise Gastaldi is a senior lecturer in management sciences at Aix-Marseille University (AMU), Faculty of Economics and Management, and a researcher at the Institute of Labor Economics and Industrial Sociology (LEST, UMR AMU-CNRS), France.Martine Le Boulaire is a management consultant and is the founder and General Secretary of CIME.Olga Lelebina is Professor at ISG International Business School, France. Her research focuses on the management of expertise and experts within technology companies. She is co-founder of CIME.

• Foreword ixAcknowledgments xiGeneral Introduction xiiiChapter 1. R&D and New Competitive Challenges: Between Intensive Innovation Strategy and Internationalization 11.1. Strategy and R&D 11.1.1. R&D’s place in business strategies 21.1.2. Different generations of R&D 41.2. Environmental factors influencing business strategies in R&D and their consequences 91.2.1. The major role of innovation in competition strategies 91.2.2. The emergence of the consumer in R&D 111.2.3. The effects of market globalization 151.3. R&D strategies tested overseas: the example of China 211.3.1. Western companies’ choice to locate their R&D in China 211.4. Conclusion 26Chapter 2. Work in R&D and its Transformations 292.1. Specifics of R&D work and its heterogeneity 292.1.1. Non-routine and knowledge intensive work 302.1.2. The work in R&D: between interactions and engagements with the surrounding environment 352.1.3. A job characterized by a certain degree of autonomy and occupational regulations382.2. The main transformations of R&D work since 1990 432.2.1. The advent of project management and of the concurrent engineering model 432.2.2. A job which is more interactive and more dependent on the downstream 482.2.3. Managerialization, bureaucratization and remoteness of technical work 522.3. Current tensions and open questions as to the future of work in R&D 562.3.1. Increasing pressure and strong focus in the short term: how sustainable is this in individual and collective terms? 562.3.2. Relocation, internationalization, outsourcing and open innovation: what is the future of R&D work? 612.3.3. The digital revolution: what is the impact on work in R&D? 642.4. Conclusion 67Chapter 3. Rationalization and Creativity: R&D under Pressure 693.1. Permanent rationalizations and reduction of available resources in R&D 703.1.1. The rationalization concept 703.1.2. R&D struggling with permanent rationalization 713.1.3. Rationalization as a slack reduction strategy 723.2. Creativity: between individual attribute and social process 773.2.1. Individual creativity 783.2.2. Creativity as an idea production process 813.2.3. Creativity as a social process 833.3. Ingredients and negative effects of slack reductions on creativity 843.3.1. Slack reduction components 853.3.2. Human slack reduction effects 853.3.3. “Financial slack” reduction effects 913.3.4. Temporal slack reduction effects 923.3.5. Spatial slack reduction effects 943.4. Mechanisms linking slack reduction and creativity 983.4.1. Focus of attention 983.4.2. Ability to “travel through time” 993.4.3. Support provided by the leader 1003.5. Conclusion 101Chapter 4. Managing R&D Professionals: HRM Practices and Current Challenges 1034.1. HRM and R&D: complex relationships 1034.1.1. R&D: a world that has long remained foreign to HRM regulations 1044.1.2. Recurrent tension between standardization and differentiation 1084.1.3. Project organization: a necessary source of adaptation of HRM in R&D 1104.2. HRM development in R&D today 1114.2.1. Strategic HR planning 1114.2.2. Recruitment and integration 1134.2.3. Assignments and mobility 1184.2.4. Individual assessment 1214.2.5. Remuneration 1244.2.6. Careers 1274.2.7. Competence management and training 1314.3. The new challenges of HRM in R&D 1334.3.1. Moving beyond an instrumental approach and adapting to the diversity of contexts 1344.3.2. Renewing (or reinventing) HRM in open innovation models 1354.3.3. Going beyond individualized HRM by integrating the collective dimension 1374.4. Conclusion 138Chapter 5. Collective Expertise: Forms and Methods of Management 1395.1. Collective expertise in R&D 1405.1.1. The dual facet of expertise: individual attribute and collective process 1405.1.2. Collective expertise and its current status 1415.2. Two forms of structuring: “horizontal” and “vertical” 1425.2.1. Horizontal structuring: interdisciplinary communities of expertise 1425.2.2. Vertical structuring: monodisciplinary communities of expertise5.3. Conclusion 157Chapter 6. Performance Management in R&D 1596.1. Performance in R&D 1596.1.1. A hard to define concept 1596.1.2. Management difficulties specific to R&D 1626.1.3. Performance challenges 1636.1.4. The delicate issue of measure 1646.2. Budgetary control of R&D departments 1696.3. Innovation project management control 1716.3.1. Economic assessment of projects: the two approaches 1716.3.2. Project management methods and tools 1756.4. Conclusion 181Bibliography 183Index 197