Thomas Leclerc is Associate Professor at Université de Bretagne Occidentale, France. He holds a PhD from the Université de Bordeaux, France, and the International Institute of Air and Space Law at Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands. His research focuses on legal aspects related to spaces beyond national jurisdictions.

• Introduction xvThomas LECLERCPart 1 The Main Sources of Space Law 1Chapter 1 History, the Treaties, the Resolutions 3Sergio MARCHISIO1.1 Notion and evolution of international space law 31.2 Space law as a fruit of the United Nations 61.3 The outer space treaty of 1967: Legal past, legal future 81.4 The other UN treaties on space activities 121.5 The declarations of principles 191.6 Other UN resolutions 211.7 References 23Chapter 2 National Space Law 27Frans VON DER DUNK2.1 National space law in the context of international space law 272.2 From international to national space law 282.3 National space law and licensing regimes addressing private sector space activities 312.4 National space law and international responsibility, authorization and continuing supervision 342.5 Final remarks 492.6 References 51Part 2 The Main Principles of Space Law 57Chapter 3 Freedom of Exploration and Use of Outer Space 59Jenni TAPIO3.1 Introduction 593.2 The basic elements of the freedom of exploration and use 603.3 Article I of the outer space treaty 653.4 Freedom of exploration and use by non-governmental entities – Reflections on State responsibility 733.5 Concluding remarks 783.6 References 79Chapter 4 The Principle of Exploration and Utilization of Outer Space for the Benefit of All Countries 83Olavo DE O BITTENCOURT NETO and Daniel FREIRE E ALMEIDA4.1 Introduction 834.2 Drafting 844.3 Legal content 864.4 Province of all mankind 884.5 Current concerns 904.6 References 92Chapter 5 Non-Appropriation of Outer Space 95Philip DE MAN5.1 Concept and origins 955.2 Scope of application 975.3 Persistent sovereignty 1035.4 References 106Chapter 6 Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 107Setsuko AOKI6.1 Background 1076.2 Article IV of the outer space treaty and unresolved issues 1086.3 Peaceful uses in outer void space 1096.4 Peaceful uses on the moon and other celestial bodies 1106.5 References 111Chapter 7 State Responsibility and Liability for Space Activities 113Armel KERREST7.1 Introduction 1137.2 The responsibility of States for their national activities in outer space 1147.3 Liability for damage caused by space objects 1157.4 Liability for damage caused on land or to aircraft in flight 1177.5 Liability for damage suffered elsewhere, not on the surface of the Earth 1247.6 Questioning the liability of the launching State 1257.7 Launching State liability and private activities 1277.8 References 128Part 3 Diversity of Fields of Application for Space Law 131Chapter 8 Space Traffic Management 133Ntorina ANTONI, Christina GIANNOPAPA and Kai-Uwe SCHROGL8.1 Introduction 1338.2 Evolution and status of space traffic management 1358.3 National STM initiatives and the civil–military challenge 1408.4 Civil–military cooperation in the air, seas and radio frequency spectrum 1478.5 The way forward for STM 1498.6 References 151Chapter 9 ITU Regulatory Regime Related to Non-GSO Satellite Systems 155Yvon HENRI and Attila MATAS9.1 Introduction 1559.2 International regulations applying to the use of frequencies and orbits particularly by non-GSO FSS satellite systems 1579.3 Bringing into use satellite networks and systems 1609.4 Radio Navigation Satellite Systems 1629.4.1 RNSS band regulations 1639.5 Non-GSO Satellite systems with SDM 1659.6 Conclusion 1679.7 References 167Chapter 10 Satellite Radio Communications 169Philippe ACHILLEAS10.1 Introduction 16910.2 The regime for the use of the "spectrum-orbit" resource 17110.3 The use of the resource in the interest of all States 18410.4 References 193Chapter 11 Navigation Satellite Systems 195Magda COCCO and Helena CORREIA MENDONÇA11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Initial concepts and overview 19511.3 Legal framework applicable to PNT 20011.4 Liability 21211.5 Conclusion 22311.6 References 224Chapter 12 The Legal Framework of Remote Sensing by Satellites: The Challenge of the New Space 227Thierry LEMAIRE12.1 Introduction 22712.2 The international legal framework applicable to remote sensing by satellites 23012.3 State control over private remote sensing activities 23512.4 Legal protection of remote sensing data 24312.5 Impacts of remote sensing on individual rights and freedoms 24712.6 Conclusion 25112.7 References 253Chapter 13 Small Satellites and the Regulation of Outer Space Activities 255Steven FREELAND13.1 The changing nature of space technology 25513.2 The current international legal framework and regulatory requirements 25813.3 Concluding remarks 26713.4 References 269Chapter 14 Exploitation of Material Resources of Celestial Bodies 271Philip DE MAN14.1 State of play 27114.2 Legal principles 27314.3 Terms: "exploitation" and "natural resources" 27614.4 Future international regime 27914.5 References 281Part 4 Challenges and Issues Raised by the Development of Space Activities 283Chapter 15 Legal Issues Related to the Exploration of the Universe 285Laetitia CESARI ZARKAN15.1 Introduction 28515.2 Anthropocentrism through the ages: envoy of humanity, space tourist and Homo spatialis 28715.3 Managing objects launched or built in space: communication links between infrastructures, protection and monitoring of systems, and management of space debris 29115.4 Finding harmony among space powers: from resource allocation to protecting the interests of the scientific community 29415.5 Conclusion 29615.6 References 297Chapter 16 The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy and International Law 299Leslie I TENNEN16.1 Introduction 29916.2 Legal standards of protection of celestial environments 30016.3 Current COSPAR planetary protection policy 30116.4 Implementation of the COSPAR PPP by space agencies and authorities 30716.5 Application of international law to the planetary protection policy 31216.6 Gaps in the application of the planetary protection policy 32016.7 Commercial new space ventures and planetary protection 32316.8 References 327Chapter 17 Military Activities in Outer Space: Legal Aspects 331Georges D KYRIAKOPOULOS17.1 Introduction 33117.2 Weaponization of outer space 33317.3 International action for the "prevention of an arms race in outer space" 33517.4 Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities 33617.5 References 337Chapter 18 Outer Space in the Face of Contemporary Conflicts: Limits and Impasses of International Law 339Julien ANCELIN and Chloé DUFFORT18.1 Introduction 33918.2 Spatial conflict subject to the law of collective security 34318.3 Spatial conflict challenges the application of the law of armed conflict 34718.4 Conclusion 35018.5 References 352List of Authors 355Index 357

Thomas Leclerc is Associate Professor at Université de Bretagne Occidentale, France. He holds a PhD from the Université de Bordeaux, France, and the International Institute of Air and Space Law at Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands. His research focuses on legal aspects related to spaces beyond national jurisdictions.

• Introduction xvThomas LECLERCPart 1 The Main Sources of Space Law 1Chapter 1 History, the Treaties, the Resolutions 3Sergio MARCHISIO1.1 Notion and evolution of international space law 31.2 Space law as a fruit of the United Nations 61.3 The outer space treaty of 1967: Legal past, legal future 81.4 The other UN treaties on space activities 121.5 The declarations of principles 191.6 Other UN resolutions 211.7 References 23Chapter 2 National Space Law 27Frans VON DER DUNK2.1 National space law in the context of international space law 272.2 From international to national space law 282.3 National space law and licensing regimes addressing private sector space activities 312.4 National space law and international responsibility, authorization and continuing supervision 342.5 Final remarks 492.6 References 51Part 2 The Main Principles of Space Law 57Chapter 3 Freedom of Exploration and Use of Outer Space 59Jenni TAPIO3.1 Introduction 593.2 The basic elements of the freedom of exploration and use 603.3 Article I of the outer space treaty 653.4 Freedom of exploration and use by non-governmental entities – Reflections on State responsibility 733.5 Concluding remarks 783.6 References 79Chapter 4 The Principle of Exploration and Utilization of Outer Space for the Benefit of All Countries 83Olavo DE O BITTENCOURT NETO and Daniel FREIRE E ALMEIDA4.1 Introduction 834.2 Drafting 844.3 Legal content 864.4 Province of all mankind 884.5 Current concerns 904.6 References 92Chapter 5 Non-Appropriation of Outer Space 95Philip DE MAN5.1 Concept and origins 955.2 Scope of application 975.3 Persistent sovereignty 1035.4 References 106Chapter 6 Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 107Setsuko AOKI6.1 Background 1076.2 Article IV of the outer space treaty and unresolved issues 1086.3 Peaceful uses in outer void space 1096.4 Peaceful uses on the moon and other celestial bodies 1106.5 References 111Chapter 7 State Responsibility and Liability for Space Activities 113Armel KERREST7.1 Introduction 1137.2 The responsibility of States for their national activities in outer space 1147.3 Liability for damage caused by space objects 1157.4 Liability for damage caused on land or to aircraft in flight 1177.5 Liability for damage suffered elsewhere, not on the surface of the Earth 1247.6 Questioning the liability of the launching State 1257.7 Launching State liability and private activities 1277.8 References 128Part 3 Diversity of Fields of Application for Space Law 131Chapter 8 Space Traffic Management 133Ntorina ANTONI, Christina GIANNOPAPA and Kai-Uwe SCHROGL8.1 Introduction 1338.2 Evolution and status of space traffic management 1358.3 National STM initiatives and the civil–military challenge 1408.4 Civil–military cooperation in the air, seas and radio frequency spectrum 1478.5 The way forward for STM 1498.6 References 151Chapter 9 ITU Regulatory Regime Related to Non-GSO Satellite Systems 155Yvon HENRI and Attila MATAS9.1 Introduction 1559.2 International regulations applying to the use of frequencies and orbits particularly by non-GSO FSS satellite systems 1579.3 Bringing into use satellite networks and systems 1609.4 Radio Navigation Satellite Systems 1629.4.1 RNSS band regulations 1639.5 Non-GSO Satellite systems with SDM 1659.6 Conclusion 1679.7 References 167Chapter 10 Satellite Radio Communications 169Philippe ACHILLEAS10.1 Introduction 16910.2 The regime for the use of the "spectrum-orbit" resource 17110.3 The use of the resource in the interest of all States 18410.4 References 193Chapter 11 Navigation Satellite Systems 195Magda COCCO and Helena CORREIA MENDONÇA11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Initial concepts and overview 19511.3 Legal framework applicable to PNT 20011.4 Liability 21211.5 Conclusion 22311.6 References 224Chapter 12 The Legal Framework of Remote Sensing by Satellites: The Challenge of the New Space 227Thierry LEMAIRE12.1 Introduction 22712.2 The international legal framework applicable to remote sensing by satellites 23012.3 State control over private remote sensing activities 23512.4 Legal protection of remote sensing data 24312.5 Impacts of remote sensing on individual rights and freedoms 24712.6 Conclusion 25112.7 References 253Chapter 13 Small Satellites and the Regulation of Outer Space Activities 255Steven FREELAND13.1 The changing nature of space technology 25513.2 The current international legal framework and regulatory requirements 25813.3 Concluding remarks 26713.4 References 269Chapter 14 Exploitation of Material Resources of Celestial Bodies 271Philip DE MAN14.1 State of play 27114.2 Legal principles 27314.3 Terms: "exploitation" and "natural resources" 27614.4 Future international regime 27914.5 References 281Part 4 Challenges and Issues Raised by the Development of Space Activities 283Chapter 15 Legal Issues Related to the Exploration of the Universe 285Laetitia CESARI ZARKAN15.1 Introduction 28515.2 Anthropocentrism through the ages: envoy of humanity, space tourist and Homo spatialis 28715.3 Managing objects launched or built in space: communication links between infrastructures, protection and monitoring of systems, and management of space debris 29115.4 Finding harmony among space powers: from resource allocation to protecting the interests of the scientific community 29415.5 Conclusion 29615.6 References 297Chapter 16 The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy and International Law 299Leslie I TENNEN16.1 Introduction 29916.2 Legal standards of protection of celestial environments 30016.3 Current COSPAR planetary protection policy 30116.4 Implementation of the COSPAR PPP by space agencies and authorities 30716.5 Application of international law to the planetary protection policy 31216.6 Gaps in the application of the planetary protection policy 32016.7 Commercial new space ventures and planetary protection 32316.8 References 327Chapter 17 Military Activities in Outer Space: Legal Aspects 331Georges D KYRIAKOPOULOS17.1 Introduction 33117.2 Weaponization of outer space 33317.3 International action for the "prevention of an arms race in outer space" 33517.4 Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities 33617.5 References 337Chapter 18 Outer Space in the Face of Contemporary Conflicts: Limits and Impasses of International Law 339Julien ANCELIN and Chloé DUFFORT18.1 Introduction 33918.2 Spatial conflict subject to the law of collective security 34318.3 Spatial conflict challenges the application of the law of armed conflict 34718.4 Conclusion 35018.5 References 352List of Authors 355Index 357

Thomas Leclerc is Associate Professor at Université de Bretagne Occidentale, France. He holds a PhD from the Université de Bordeaux, France, and the International Institute of Air and Space Law at Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands. His research focuses on legal aspects related to spaces beyond national jurisdictions.

• Introduction xvThomas LECLERCPart 1 The Main Sources of Space Law 1Chapter 1 History, the Treaties, the Resolutions 3Sergio MARCHISIO1.1 Notion and evolution of international space law 31.2 Space law as a fruit of the United Nations 61.3 The outer space treaty of 1967: Legal past, legal future 81.4 The other UN treaties on space activities 121.5 The declarations of principles 191.6 Other UN resolutions 211.7 References 23Chapter 2 National Space Law 27Frans VON DER DUNK2.1 National space law in the context of international space law 272.2 From international to national space law 282.3 National space law and licensing regimes addressing private sector space activities 312.4 National space law and international responsibility, authorization and continuing supervision 342.5 Final remarks 492.6 References 51Part 2 The Main Principles of Space Law 57Chapter 3 Freedom of Exploration and Use of Outer Space 59Jenni TAPIO3.1 Introduction 593.2 The basic elements of the freedom of exploration and use 603.3 Article I of the outer space treaty 653.4 Freedom of exploration and use by non-governmental entities – Reflections on State responsibility 733.5 Concluding remarks 783.6 References 79Chapter 4 The Principle of Exploration and Utilization of Outer Space for the Benefit of All Countries 83Olavo DE O BITTENCOURT NETO and Daniel FREIRE E ALMEIDA4.1 Introduction 834.2 Drafting 844.3 Legal content 864.4 Province of all mankind 884.5 Current concerns 904.6 References 92Chapter 5 Non-Appropriation of Outer Space 95Philip DE MAN5.1 Concept and origins 955.2 Scope of application 975.3 Persistent sovereignty 1035.4 References 106Chapter 6 Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 107Setsuko AOKI6.1 Background 1076.2 Article IV of the outer space treaty and unresolved issues 1086.3 Peaceful uses in outer void space 1096.4 Peaceful uses on the moon and other celestial bodies 1106.5 References 111Chapter 7 State Responsibility and Liability for Space Activities 113Armel KERREST7.1 Introduction 1137.2 The responsibility of States for their national activities in outer space 1147.3 Liability for damage caused by space objects 1157.4 Liability for damage caused on land or to aircraft in flight 1177.5 Liability for damage suffered elsewhere, not on the surface of the Earth 1247.6 Questioning the liability of the launching State 1257.7 Launching State liability and private activities 1277.8 References 128Part 3 Diversity of Fields of Application for Space Law 131Chapter 8 Space Traffic Management 133Ntorina ANTONI, Christina GIANNOPAPA and Kai-Uwe SCHROGL8.1 Introduction 1338.2 Evolution and status of space traffic management 1358.3 National STM initiatives and the civil–military challenge 1408.4 Civil–military cooperation in the air, seas and radio frequency spectrum 1478.5 The way forward for STM 1498.6 References 151Chapter 9 ITU Regulatory Regime Related to Non-GSO Satellite Systems 155Yvon HENRI and Attila MATAS9.1 Introduction 1559.2 International regulations applying to the use of frequencies and orbits particularly by non-GSO FSS satellite systems 1579.3 Bringing into use satellite networks and systems 1609.4 Radio Navigation Satellite Systems 1629.4.1 RNSS band regulations 1639.5 Non-GSO Satellite systems with SDM 1659.6 Conclusion 1679.7 References 167Chapter 10 Satellite Radio Communications 169Philippe ACHILLEAS10.1 Introduction 16910.2 The regime for the use of the "spectrum-orbit" resource 17110.3 The use of the resource in the interest of all States 18410.4 References 193Chapter 11 Navigation Satellite Systems 195Magda COCCO and Helena CORREIA MENDONÇA11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Initial concepts and overview 19511.3 Legal framework applicable to PNT 20011.4 Liability 21211.5 Conclusion 22311.6 References 224Chapter 12 The Legal Framework of Remote Sensing by Satellites: The Challenge of the New Space 227Thierry LEMAIRE12.1 Introduction 22712.2 The international legal framework applicable to remote sensing by satellites 23012.3 State control over private remote sensing activities 23512.4 Legal protection of remote sensing data 24312.5 Impacts of remote sensing on individual rights and freedoms 24712.6 Conclusion 25112.7 References 253Chapter 13 Small Satellites and the Regulation of Outer Space Activities 255Steven FREELAND13.1 The changing nature of space technology 25513.2 The current international legal framework and regulatory requirements 25813.3 Concluding remarks 26713.4 References 269Chapter 14 Exploitation of Material Resources of Celestial Bodies 271Philip DE MAN14.1 State of play 27114.2 Legal principles 27314.3 Terms: "exploitation" and "natural resources" 27614.4 Future international regime 27914.5 References 281Part 4 Challenges and Issues Raised by the Development of Space Activities 283Chapter 15 Legal Issues Related to the Exploration of the Universe 285Laetitia CESARI ZARKAN15.1 Introduction 28515.2 Anthropocentrism through the ages: envoy of humanity, space tourist and Homo spatialis 28715.3 Managing objects launched or built in space: communication links between infrastructures, protection and monitoring of systems, and management of space debris 29115.4 Finding harmony among space powers: from resource allocation to protecting the interests of the scientific community 29415.5 Conclusion 29615.6 References 297Chapter 16 The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy and International Law 299Leslie I TENNEN16.1 Introduction 29916.2 Legal standards of protection of celestial environments 30016.3 Current COSPAR planetary protection policy 30116.4 Implementation of the COSPAR PPP by space agencies and authorities 30716.5 Application of international law to the planetary protection policy 31216.6 Gaps in the application of the planetary protection policy 32016.7 Commercial new space ventures and planetary protection 32316.8 References 327Chapter 17 Military Activities in Outer Space: Legal Aspects 331Georges D KYRIAKOPOULOS17.1 Introduction 33117.2 Weaponization of outer space 33317.3 International action for the "prevention of an arms race in outer space" 33517.4 Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities 33617.5 References 337Chapter 18 Outer Space in the Face of Contemporary Conflicts: Limits and Impasses of International Law 339Julien ANCELIN and Chloé DUFFORT18.1 Introduction 33918.2 Spatial conflict subject to the law of collective security 34318.3 Spatial conflict challenges the application of the law of armed conflict 34718.4 Conclusion 35018.5 References 352List of Authors 355Index 357