Pierre Richard Dahoo is Professor at Versailles Saint-Quentinen-Yvelines/ Université Paris-Saclay, France and Researcher at LATMOS. He is the author of several books on nanotechnologies and infrared spectroscopies applied to space. He also chairs the Physics and Optics without Borders Commission of the French Physical Society.Mustapha Meftah holds a doctorate in geosciences and is an astrophysicist specializing in atmosphere–climate relations. He is a graduate engineer in aeronautics and space, with several CubeSats in orbit to his credit. He teaches at Université Paris-Saclay, France, on the challenges of space and the new applications linked to NewSpace.Abdelkhalak El Hami is Professor at INSA Rouen Normandie, France. He is responsible for several European educational projects and is a specialist in fluidstructure interaction problems and the reliability of multiphysics systems. He is also the author of numerous books in the field.

• Foreword ixIntroduction xiChapter 1. Optical Architecture 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Optical theories of light phenomena 71.3. Optical systems for observation and detection 121.4. Main limitations of an optical system 181.4.1. Resolution power and Rayleigh criterion 181.4.2. The defects of a real optical instrument 281.4.3. Fourier optics and the spatial frequencies of an object 331.5. Light detection system in an optical system 381.5.1. Poynting vector and photon detection 391.5.2. Semiconductor-based detectors, photodiodes and CCDs 401.6. Application examples 451.6.1. Telescope observing the Sun 451.6.2. Spectrometer for measuring the solar spectrum and its variability over time 501.7. Conclusion 541.8. Appendix 551.8.1. Propagation of light in wave optics 551.8.2. Terrestrial radiation sensors 60Chapter 2. Thermal and Electrical Architectures 652.1. Introduction 652.2. Electrical architecture of a CubeSat 692.2.1. The various components of electrical architecture 692.2.2. The attitude control system 722.3. Thermal architecture of a CubeSat 752.3.1. Thermal control 762.3.2. Thermal specifications for CubeSats 772.3.3. Thermal management technologies for CubeSats 782.4. Development and evaluation of thermal control 842.4.1. Phase 0: analysis 852.4.2. Phase A: feasibility study 852.4.3. Phase B: preliminary definition 852.4.4. Phases C and D: implementation and qualification 852.4.5. Phase E: in-orbit operation and decommissioning 872.5. Theories, models and simulation of thermal effects 872.5.1. Heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation 882.5.2. Heat diffusion equation 942.5.3. Devices or systems used for thermal effects management 952.5.4. Example of an equation for heat diffusion in a telescope 992.6. Conclusion 1042.7. Appendix 1052.7.1. Quantities characterizing the exchange of luminous flux by radiation 1052.7.2. View factor 1092.7.3. Thermal environment in space 1132.7.4. Theoretical elements relating to thermomechanics and thermoelasticity 1152.7.5. TRL scale (Technology Readiness Level – ISO 16290-2013) 119Chapter 3. Environmental Testing 1213.1. Introduction 1213.2. Main limitations of a spatial system 1273.2.1. The FIDES benchmark for predictive reliability 1273.2.2. Reliability through RBDO simulation and digital twin procedure 1323.3. Constraints of the space environment on the design of space systems 1423.3.1. Mechanical launch environment 1423.3.2. Orbital environment 1433.3.3. Space environment 1433.4. Solar cycles 1433.4.1. Long-term solar cycle index 1463.4.2. Short-term solar cycle index 1463.5. The effects of the gravitational field 1473.5.1. Gravitational force 1473.5.2. Microgravity 1473.5.3. The atmospheric model, or neutral atmosphere 1483.5.4. The gaseous constituents of the atmosphere at high altitude 1493.5.5. The altitude density model 1493.5.6. Aerodynamic drag 1503.6. The effects of the magnetic field 1513.6.1. Origin and variation of the geomagnetic field 1523.6.2. The magnetosphere and its characteristics 1523.6.3. The external magnetic field and its characteristics 1543.6.4. Magnetic field model and nominal values 1543.6.5. Nominal values and characteristics of the magnetic field 1553.6.6. South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) 1553.7. Effects due to plasma 1563.7.1. Plasma environment in low Earth orbit 1573.7.2. Plasma temperatures 1583.7.3. Electrical charging and effects on the satellite 1593.7.4. Effects of radiation 1593.7.5. Effects of the Van Allen belt 1613.7.6. Electromagnetic radiation 1613.7.7. Satellite lifespan 1613.8. Conclusion 1623.9. Appendix 1633.9.1. Statistics and probabilities, and generalized extremum law 1633.9.2. Example of thermal effect simulation using FEM 1723.9.3. Preparation of the CubeSat: UVSQ-SAT NG 179Chapter 4. Preparing for an Observation Mission 1814.1. Introduction 1824.2. Calibration of the UVSQ-SAT NG NIR spectrometer 1864.2.1. Wavelength calibration 1874.2.2. Absolute response 1914.2.3. Bandwidth and aperture function 1934.2.4. Temperature 1964.3. Determination of the extraterrestrial solar spectrum using the Langley tracing technique 1974.3.1. Methodology 1984.3.2. Considering atmospheric effects 2004.3.3. Calculation of optical depth 2024.3.4. Conditions for accurate measurements using the Langley technique 2024.4. Experimental results and discussion 2034.5. Conclusion 2094.6. Appendix 2104.6.1. Analysis and processing of measurement data 2104.6.2. The nonlinear simplex method 2164.6.3. The Levenberg–Marquardt method 2194.6.4. The Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno method 2214.6.5. Signal processing for deconvolving a measurement 2214.6.6. Spectrum of a diatomic molecule in IR spectroscopy 226Chapter 5. A Better Understanding of Light 2335.1. The period from Antiquity to the Middle Ages 2335.2. Initial approaches to interpreting light phenomena 2355.3. First theorems and postulates of optics 2385.4. Two teaching methods: Neoplatonism and Scholasticism 2405.5. Science in the Middle East 2415.6. Universities and science in Europe 2435.7. Optics after the Middle Ages and the scientific revolution 2485.7.1. The law of refraction and the speed of light in a medium 2485.7.2. Geometric optics and wave optics 2495.7.3. Photons and stimulated emission 2505.7.4. Quantum optics and photon entanglement 2535.8. Conclusion 2565.9. Appendix 2575.9.1. Elements of quantum mechanics 2575.9.2. Thermal transfer modeling using the density matrix 2605.9.3. The nature of the photon and the quantum vacuum 265Conclusion 275References 277Index 301

Pierre Richard Dahoo is Professor at Versailles Saint-Quentinen-Yvelines/ Université Paris-Saclay, France and Researcher at LATMOS. He is the author of several books on nanotechnologies and infrared spectroscopies applied to space. He also chairs the Physics and Optics without Borders Commission of the French Physical Society.Mustapha Meftah holds a doctorate in geosciences and is an astrophysicist specializing in atmosphere–climate relations. He is a graduate engineer in aeronautics and space, with several CubeSats in orbit to his credit. He teaches at Université Paris-Saclay, France, on the challenges of space and the new applications linked to NewSpace.Abdelkhalak El Hami is Professor at INSA Rouen Normandie, France. He is responsible for several European educational projects and is a specialist in fluidstructure interaction problems and the reliability of multiphysics systems. He is also the author of numerous books in the field.

• Foreword ixIntroduction xiChapter 1. Optical Architecture 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Optical theories of light phenomena 71.3. Optical systems for observation and detection 121.4. Main limitations of an optical system 181.4.1. Resolution power and Rayleigh criterion 181.4.2. The defects of a real optical instrument 281.4.3. Fourier optics and the spatial frequencies of an object 331.5. Light detection system in an optical system 381.5.1. Poynting vector and photon detection 391.5.2. Semiconductor-based detectors, photodiodes and CCDs 401.6. Application examples 451.6.1. Telescope observing the Sun 451.6.2. Spectrometer for measuring the solar spectrum and its variability over time 501.7. Conclusion 541.8. Appendix 551.8.1. Propagation of light in wave optics 551.8.2. Terrestrial radiation sensors 60Chapter 2. Thermal and Electrical Architectures 652.1. Introduction 652.2. Electrical architecture of a CubeSat 692.2.1. The various components of electrical architecture 692.2.2. The attitude control system 722.3. Thermal architecture of a CubeSat 752.3.1. Thermal control 762.3.2. Thermal specifications for CubeSats 772.3.3. Thermal management technologies for CubeSats 782.4. Development and evaluation of thermal control 842.4.1. Phase 0: analysis 852.4.2. Phase A: feasibility study 852.4.3. Phase B: preliminary definition 852.4.4. Phases C and D: implementation and qualification 852.4.5. Phase E: in-orbit operation and decommissioning 872.5. Theories, models and simulation of thermal effects 872.5.1. Heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation 882.5.2. Heat diffusion equation 942.5.3. Devices or systems used for thermal effects management 952.5.4. Example of an equation for heat diffusion in a telescope 992.6. Conclusion 1042.7. Appendix 1052.7.1. Quantities characterizing the exchange of luminous flux by radiation 1052.7.2. View factor 1092.7.3. Thermal environment in space 1132.7.4. Theoretical elements relating to thermomechanics and thermoelasticity 1152.7.5. TRL scale (Technology Readiness Level – ISO 16290-2013) 119Chapter 3. Environmental Testing 1213.1. Introduction 1213.2. Main limitations of a spatial system 1273.2.1. The FIDES benchmark for predictive reliability 1273.2.2. Reliability through RBDO simulation and digital twin procedure 1323.3. Constraints of the space environment on the design of space systems 1423.3.1. Mechanical launch environment 1423.3.2. Orbital environment 1433.3.3. Space environment 1433.4. Solar cycles 1433.4.1. Long-term solar cycle index 1463.4.2. Short-term solar cycle index 1463.5. The effects of the gravitational field 1473.5.1. Gravitational force 1473.5.2. Microgravity 1473.5.3. The atmospheric model, or neutral atmosphere 1483.5.4. The gaseous constituents of the atmosphere at high altitude 1493.5.5. The altitude density model 1493.5.6. Aerodynamic drag 1503.6. The effects of the magnetic field 1513.6.1. Origin and variation of the geomagnetic field 1523.6.2. The magnetosphere and its characteristics 1523.6.3. The external magnetic field and its characteristics 1543.6.4. Magnetic field model and nominal values 1543.6.5. Nominal values and characteristics of the magnetic field 1553.6.6. South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) 1553.7. Effects due to plasma 1563.7.1. Plasma environment in low Earth orbit 1573.7.2. Plasma temperatures 1583.7.3. Electrical charging and effects on the satellite 1593.7.4. Effects of radiation 1593.7.5. Effects of the Van Allen belt 1613.7.6. Electromagnetic radiation 1613.7.7. Satellite lifespan 1613.8. Conclusion 1623.9. Appendix 1633.9.1. Statistics and probabilities, and generalized extremum law 1633.9.2. Example of thermal effect simulation using FEM 1723.9.3. Preparation of the CubeSat: UVSQ-SAT NG 179Chapter 4. Preparing for an Observation Mission 1814.1. Introduction 1824.2. Calibration of the UVSQ-SAT NG NIR spectrometer 1864.2.1. Wavelength calibration 1874.2.2. Absolute response 1914.2.3. Bandwidth and aperture function 1934.2.4. Temperature 1964.3. Determination of the extraterrestrial solar spectrum using the Langley tracing technique 1974.3.1. Methodology 1984.3.2. Considering atmospheric effects 2004.3.3. Calculation of optical depth 2024.3.4. Conditions for accurate measurements using the Langley technique 2024.4. Experimental results and discussion 2034.5. Conclusion 2094.6. Appendix 2104.6.1. Analysis and processing of measurement data 2104.6.2. The nonlinear simplex method 2164.6.3. The Levenberg–Marquardt method 2194.6.4. The Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno method 2214.6.5. Signal processing for deconvolving a measurement 2214.6.6. Spectrum of a diatomic molecule in IR spectroscopy 226Chapter 5. A Better Understanding of Light 2335.1. The period from Antiquity to the Middle Ages 2335.2. Initial approaches to interpreting light phenomena 2355.3. First theorems and postulates of optics 2385.4. Two teaching methods: Neoplatonism and Scholasticism 2405.5. Science in the Middle East 2415.6. Universities and science in Europe 2435.7. Optics after the Middle Ages and the scientific revolution 2485.7.1. The law of refraction and the speed of light in a medium 2485.7.2. Geometric optics and wave optics 2495.7.3. Photons and stimulated emission 2505.7.4. Quantum optics and photon entanglement 2535.8. Conclusion 2565.9. Appendix 2575.9.1. Elements of quantum mechanics 2575.9.2. Thermal transfer modeling using the density matrix 2605.9.3. The nature of the photon and the quantum vacuum 265Conclusion 275References 277Index 301

Pierre Richard Dahoo is Professor at Versailles Saint-Quentinen-Yvelines/ Université Paris-Saclay, France and Researcher at LATMOS. He is the author of several books on nanotechnologies and infrared spectroscopies applied to space. He also chairs the Physics and Optics without Borders Commission of the French Physical Society.Mustapha Meftah holds a doctorate in geosciences and is an astrophysicist specializing in atmosphere–climate relations. He is a graduate engineer in aeronautics and space, with several CubeSats in orbit to his credit. He teaches at Université Paris-Saclay, France, on the challenges of space and the new applications linked to NewSpace.Abdelkhalak El Hami is Professor at INSA Rouen Normandie, France. He is responsible for several European educational projects and is a specialist in fluidstructure interaction problems and the reliability of multiphysics systems. He is also the author of numerous books in the field.

• Foreword ixIntroduction xiChapter 1. Optical Architecture 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Optical theories of light phenomena 71.3. Optical systems for observation and detection 121.4. Main limitations of an optical system 181.4.1. Resolution power and Rayleigh criterion 181.4.2. The defects of a real optical instrument 281.4.3. Fourier optics and the spatial frequencies of an object 331.5. Light detection system in an optical system 381.5.1. Poynting vector and photon detection 391.5.2. Semiconductor-based detectors, photodiodes and CCDs 401.6. Application examples 451.6.1. Telescope observing the Sun 451.6.2. Spectrometer for measuring the solar spectrum and its variability over time 501.7. Conclusion 541.8. Appendix 551.8.1. Propagation of light in wave optics 551.8.2. Terrestrial radiation sensors 60Chapter 2. Thermal and Electrical Architectures 652.1. Introduction 652.2. Electrical architecture of a CubeSat 692.2.1. The various components of electrical architecture 692.2.2. The attitude control system 722.3. Thermal architecture of a CubeSat 752.3.1. Thermal control 762.3.2. Thermal specifications for CubeSats 772.3.3. Thermal management technologies for CubeSats 782.4. Development and evaluation of thermal control 842.4.1. Phase 0: analysis 852.4.2. Phase A: feasibility study 852.4.3. Phase B: preliminary definition 852.4.4. Phases C and D: implementation and qualification 852.4.5. Phase E: in-orbit operation and decommissioning 872.5. Theories, models and simulation of thermal effects 872.5.1. Heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation 882.5.2. Heat diffusion equation 942.5.3. Devices or systems used for thermal effects management 952.5.4. Example of an equation for heat diffusion in a telescope 992.6. Conclusion 1042.7. Appendix 1052.7.1. Quantities characterizing the exchange of luminous flux by radiation 1052.7.2. View factor 1092.7.3. Thermal environment in space 1132.7.4. Theoretical elements relating to thermomechanics and thermoelasticity 1152.7.5. TRL scale (Technology Readiness Level – ISO 16290-2013) 119Chapter 3. Environmental Testing 1213.1. Introduction 1213.2. Main limitations of a spatial system 1273.2.1. The FIDES benchmark for predictive reliability 1273.2.2. Reliability through RBDO simulation and digital twin procedure 1323.3. Constraints of the space environment on the design of space systems 1423.3.1. Mechanical launch environment 1423.3.2. Orbital environment 1433.3.3. Space environment 1433.4. Solar cycles 1433.4.1. Long-term solar cycle index 1463.4.2. Short-term solar cycle index 1463.5. The effects of the gravitational field 1473.5.1. Gravitational force 1473.5.2. Microgravity 1473.5.3. The atmospheric model, or neutral atmosphere 1483.5.4. The gaseous constituents of the atmosphere at high altitude 1493.5.5. The altitude density model 1493.5.6. Aerodynamic drag 1503.6. The effects of the magnetic field 1513.6.1. Origin and variation of the geomagnetic field 1523.6.2. The magnetosphere and its characteristics 1523.6.3. The external magnetic field and its characteristics 1543.6.4. Magnetic field model and nominal values 1543.6.5. Nominal values and characteristics of the magnetic field 1553.6.6. South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) 1553.7. Effects due to plasma 1563.7.1. Plasma environment in low Earth orbit 1573.7.2. Plasma temperatures 1583.7.3. Electrical charging and effects on the satellite 1593.7.4. Effects of radiation 1593.7.5. Effects of the Van Allen belt 1613.7.6. Electromagnetic radiation 1613.7.7. Satellite lifespan 1613.8. Conclusion 1623.9. Appendix 1633.9.1. Statistics and probabilities, and generalized extremum law 1633.9.2. Example of thermal effect simulation using FEM 1723.9.3. Preparation of the CubeSat: UVSQ-SAT NG 179Chapter 4. Preparing for an Observation Mission 1814.1. Introduction 1824.2. Calibration of the UVSQ-SAT NG NIR spectrometer 1864.2.1. Wavelength calibration 1874.2.2. Absolute response 1914.2.3. Bandwidth and aperture function 1934.2.4. Temperature 1964.3. Determination of the extraterrestrial solar spectrum using the Langley tracing technique 1974.3.1. Methodology 1984.3.2. Considering atmospheric effects 2004.3.3. Calculation of optical depth 2024.3.4. Conditions for accurate measurements using the Langley technique 2024.4. Experimental results and discussion 2034.5. Conclusion 2094.6. Appendix 2104.6.1. Analysis and processing of measurement data 2104.6.2. The nonlinear simplex method 2164.6.3. The Levenberg–Marquardt method 2194.6.4. The Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno method 2214.6.5. Signal processing for deconvolving a measurement 2214.6.6. Spectrum of a diatomic molecule in IR spectroscopy 226Chapter 5. A Better Understanding of Light 2335.1. The period from Antiquity to the Middle Ages 2335.2. Initial approaches to interpreting light phenomena 2355.3. First theorems and postulates of optics 2385.4. Two teaching methods: Neoplatonism and Scholasticism 2405.5. Science in the Middle East 2415.6. Universities and science in Europe 2435.7. Optics after the Middle Ages and the scientific revolution 2485.7.1. The law of refraction and the speed of light in a medium 2485.7.2. Geometric optics and wave optics 2495.7.3. Photons and stimulated emission 2505.7.4. Quantum optics and photon entanglement 2535.8. Conclusion 2565.9. Appendix 2575.9.1. Elements of quantum mechanics 2575.9.2. Thermal transfer modeling using the density matrix 2605.9.3. The nature of the photon and the quantum vacuum 265Conclusion 275References 277Index 301