Identity, Belonging and Migration

Gerard Delanty is Professor of Sociology at the University of Sussex. Ruth Wodak is Professor of Discourse Studies at Lancaster University. Paul R. Jones is Lecturer in Sociology at the University of Liverpool.

Edited by internationally renowned scholars in the field, and featuring contributions from academics from various parts of Europe, this collection of essays looks at issues relating to migration across the continent. Focusing on the somewhat slippery concept of identity, the essays address a range of issues relating to racism and anti-immigration discourse. Divided into three parts, the text comprises of sections on (1) Theoretical perspectives on belonging, (2) Institutional forms of discrimination, and (3) Cases of belonging and exclusion. In the Introduction, the editors set the scene for the subsequent essays by highlighting the emergence of new kinds of racism in European societies. Here, they note that racism in Europe is on the increase and that migrants, refugees and asylum seekers are positioned as the new 'Others' in a range of discourse. This 'new' racism is perceived as being less overtly racist than previous forms, and it focuses more on social characteristics, cultural incompatibilities and differences. By looking at contemporary issues through the lenses of identity and belonging, this work critically assesses the dynamic and contested nature of migration in Europe. The first substantive section, on the theoretical perspectives on belonging, is for me the strongest part of the book. Here, as Wodak's chapter makes explicit, there is a widespread use of discourse focusing on a (re)creation of 'us' and 'them'. As Stuart Hall has noted, it is precisely because identities are constructed within, and not outside of, discourse that we need to understand them as produced in specific sites with specific discursive formations. Strath's chapter provides a good conceptual underpinning for the subsequent sections by highlighting the ways in which new borders are key to understanding Europe today. Of particular relevance here is the shifting dynamic between the past and the present that shapes not only our notions of the past but represents 'a fundamental crisis in our imagination of alternative futures' (p. 26). Contemporary identities are as much about 'routes' as they are 'roots', hereby demonstrating the shifting nature of identities in an increasingly globalised world. The section on institutional forms of discrimination highlights the exclusionary discourses and practices of states and their institutions. Here, subjects such as human rights and labour markets are used to identify how and where issues of discrimination emerge. Hanauer's contribution on non-place identity in Britain is a particularly interesting analysis of time and place in the nation-state. By developing an overview of non-place identity, the author argues that place does not have to be the primary source for identity construction. Instead it is argued that personal interests and functions should be placed more firmly at the centre of discussions of migrant identities. This is an interesting point for work on collective identities which has historically focused on issues of similarity, whilst analyses of individual identities have tended to look at notions of difference. The last of the three sections includes four thematic discussions of belonging and exclusion. It contains chapters on polarisation and social closure in Madrid schools and another on the transformation of 'Dutchness'. Kamali's concluding chapter considers issues of discrimination, belonging and migration within 'post-colonial' European nationstates. Here, the strong denials of racism on the part of powerful and dominant groups reinforce structural inequalities. The author concludes by noting that deeper knowledge of the 'institutionalized mechanisms of discrimination' is needed in order to 'combat racism and discrimination and monitor social cohesion' (p. 308). As with many edited collections, there are some subjects that appear throughout the text and other areas that the reader would like to see developed further. There are also topics that are not included in the work that would seem to fit well into the discussion presented. Of course, it would be impossible to touch upon all relevant issues in such a wide-ranging subject, although one area that would seem to lend itself well to discussions of identity and belonging is sport. Sport is notably absent from any of the discussions, despite the massive increase in the migration of athletes between European countries (and beyond) and the importance of sport for further understanding the interplay of a range of identities. Here, it is not only issues related to conceptualisations of the nation and a sense of belonging that migrants may experience through sport, but also, perhaps even more pertinently, in light of the discussions put forward in the collection, the role of sport as a tool in social inclusion/exclusion. Yet this is not to take away from what is a very interesting and informative collection of essays that highlight the many ways in which issues of racism and discrimination shape the lives of migrants in twenty-first-century Europe. This text certainly contributes to the body of work highlighting the contested and multi-dimensional nature of identities. In contemporary times, identities are less conceived as stable, fixed and unproblematic and are better understood as being fluid, contingent and relatively unfixed. Dealing with something as contentious and problematic as identities in Europe today makes this book a valuable and timely contribution to the literature. The Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Volume 17, Issue 3 Dealing with something as contentious and problematic as identities in Europe today makes this book a valuable and timely contribution to the literature. The Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Volume 17, Issue 3 Issues of identity, belonging and exclusion, nationalism, nationhood and nation building are at the forefront of social and political inquiry. The two books under review here, while different in their respective aims, both add to the literatures on these issues of everyday import. The authors and editors investigate complex socio-political relationships in differentiated policy arenas with the discussions theoretically engaging historical and cultural experiences that bear on the practicalities presented in respective case studies. There is a remarkable overlap in the two books, which uncover several weaknesses and fallacies associated with taken for-granted positions. By applying universalistic frameworks, they draw upon comparative, discursive and institutional practices in exploring implications of social and public policies. Their conclusions appear channelled for the potential mitigation of real problems seen in the social and political economies of tension filled cross-cultural societies. With identity, Belonging and Migration, Delanty et al. have successfully created an intellectual brand. The editors reinforce the need for a 'politics of recognition which entails a positive recognition of difference' (p. 14). At the heart of the collection is a contention that institutionalised forms of discrimination on matters of ethnicity and race 'produce and reproduce', with varying but prejudicial effects, structures of inclusion and exclusion. Against this understanding, an aim articulated by the editors is to 'provide some understanding of the many socio-political, historical, discursive and socio-cognitive processes involved in such expressions of everyday racism by investigating the narratives of everyday life' (p. 2). In Nationalism and Social Policy: The Politics of Territorial Solidarity, Beland and Lecours set about examining the 'relationship between nationalism and social policy' (p. 5) in the countries of Canada, the United Kingdom and Belgium. Focus on these multicultural societies presents a view that shows 'how social policy has been used' effectively to shape and influence 'nationalist movements as an identity-building tool', thus contributing to 'nationalist mobilization' among the 'Quebecois, Scottish, and Flemish' (p. 5) peoples. This work is historically gripping; it opens doors for researchers and policy makers to investigate changes and the relationships 'between identity formation, territorial mobilization, and public policy' (p. 223). Delanty et al. divide their book into three sections in order to accomplish the set objectives. The theoretical scope of belonging and exclusion is put into a workable framework which underscores the 'processes' that drive particular narratives of belonging and exclusion, especially in relation to 'migrants and collectives'. Individual authors demonstrate an application of 'general discursive techniques' discovering the maintenance of difference. The chapters trigger insights on 'secularism and transformations' which, more often than not, are built around foundational theories that describe 'the liberal conception of the social order' (p. 15) without advancing 'theoretical discussion'. Approaches in this book relieve interested readers of reductionist explanations. The book captures key concerns on the significance of institutional processes and the paradoxical construction of racism. For example, in 'the existence of forms of discrimination that are embedded in daily practices' (p. 126), the authors expose the embedded misunderstanding attached to 'multicultural policies' and daily practices of 'nationalization' and the 'racialization of cultures'. They identify the contrasting effects of the 'multiple loyalties' coupled with 'new trends of inclusion and exclusion' which, for instance, find prommence 111 'restrictive measures' implemented in the Netherlands. Nonetheless, the authors suggest that socialisation processes and the 'assimilationist pressure is very strong' (p. 298) in those countries which attempt to reinforce particular value systems, and that tolerance appears as a 'meagre replacement for recognition' (p. 266) in the respective social and political systems. Beland and Lecours take the reader through a historical yet pragmatic journey that is punctuated with logical and sequential arguments. Illustrative of this is the interplay of actors and agency with their resultant identities and perceived interests becoming fundamental to the 'constructed power of a state discourse which places social policy at the centre of national solidarity' (p. 21). In separate chapters, while also interspersing necessary comparative analyses at strategic points, the authors keep the reader up to speed with each country setting. In this way they enhance the capacity for readers to stay engaged with a rich miscellany of given examples. There is less difficulty in associating differentiated histories within the crux of the writers' arguments on how the 'politics of social policy' becomes a pressurised environment in which 'nationalist movements make social programmes a target for political mobilization' (p. 161). There is conceptual 'distinction between sub-state and state nationalism' (p. 218), and this teases out from the engagements, discursive practices and institutions sufficient meanings which illustrate that nationalist politics are complex phenomena, but that there is also 'variability of the impact of sub-state nationalism on social policy' (p. 180). The two books reviewed present rich data which demonstrate an appreciation for the plight of those affected by institutionalised practices of discrimination, marginalisation and subjection to dominance. For policy makers, a rethinking is necessary in the arenas of social and political policies, since their effects are central to daily perceptions of identities and interests. Both books would be substantially more effective with the use of visual aids such as charts and tables that show processes and relationships. On the same account, readers are likely to question the limited numerical data, since that would perhaps augment the well chosen qualitative examples. Overall, the two books reviewed here reflect good scholarship, although expansion is necessary to help disaggregate changes in momentum that occur when cultural politics converges with real-time social and political circumstances in the policy arena. Political Studies Review, Volume 9, Number 2 Anti-immigration and more subtle or coded racist rhetoric has, in many EU countries, increased and has become a normal part of the language used by political parties - not only the more extreme right-wing but also many mainstream parties - to legitimise restrictive immigration rules and other coercive assimilation or integration policies. This book discusses the question of migration in Europe and analyses the old and newly emerging racisms and anti-racisms that are at the basis of the national political discourse on this subject. The first of the book's three parts contains theoretical perspectives of belonging, migration and exclusion. Strath (chapter 1) begins with an analysis of the concept of belonging and provides a framework within which to understand national and European belongings and inclusionary/exclusionary practices based on these. Jones and Krzyzanowski (chapter 2) set out to unpack the concept of identity, which has often been taken for granted and misunderstood. They link the concept to that of national and European belonging and provide a theoretical model on which to base empirical research into the question of identity and how people define themselves in relation to others. Wodak (chapter 3) elaborates on the rhetoric of inclusion/exclusion and on its application to discriminatory practices in the EU. She analyses the (right-wing) discourses that are used to justify and legitimate exclusion and that deny racism. Delanty (chapter 4) then examines the tensions around religion and secularism which play a major role in the European debates on migration and belonging. He discusses different models of secularism as they operate in Europe today and argues that secularism is no longer adequate and that, instead, a post-secular society needs to be created. The second part of the book builds on these theoretical perspectives and analyses institutional and structural discrimination by looking at exclusionary discourses and practices of states and their institutions. Lentin (chapter 5) argues that understanding anti-racisms is central to making sense of the role racisms play in these exclusionary practices and discourses, both at national and at European level. Aykac (chapter 6) discusses the development of race matters in the EU and whether these contribute to giving a voice to migrants. She concludes that, in theory they do, but in practice numerous obstacles for migrants remain. Bellier (chapter 7) looks at the multiculturalisation of societies from a human rights point of view, using examples of Roma people and EU civil servants to illustrate her argument. Burns (chapter 8) examines the concepts of structural institutional discrimination and institutional agentic discrimination, the latter especially in relation to the agents with gatekeeper roles - those with authority or power to make judgments that can make a difference for the position of migrants. Flam (chapter 9) also discusses agentic institutional discrimination, but more specifically in relation to migrants' access to and position in the European labour market. She defines gatekeepers as decision-makers in key institutions whose routine decisions lead to discrimination against or exclusion of migrants and their children. The main result from her research is the migrant-typing of the lowliest jobs across economic sectors. Hanauer (chapter 10) proposes an alternative to understanding the issue of migration and identity which he terms 'non-place identity'. This alternative questions the link between the legal and the personal-societal aspects of migration present in many tests for the acquisition of citizenship (including the British test). Hanauer's alternative posits the option of cognitive, pragmatic citizenship without deep identification. The book's third part discusses a number of examples of cases of belonging and exclusion in different European settings, providing illustrations of the issues discussed in earlier parts. Flam and Beauzamy (chapter 11) investigate the ways in which everyday encounters between 'natives' and 'foreigners' affect the ways in which migrants think and feel about themselves, concentrating on the concept of symbolic violence to do so. Sawyer (with Jones, chapter 12) discusses the diversity of strategies employed by migrants to rationalize the racism, discrimination and prejudice they encounter and to challenge the existing unequal power relations. Many racisms, but also many resistances, are played out in a wide range of everyday encounters. De Leeuw and van Wichelen (chapter 13) examine the crisis of liberalism in the Netherlands and the political and public transformations that have taken place with respect to cultural diversity in the past decade. These transformations correspond to processes and dynamics of Europeanization and have led to a national mood of ressentiment against politics from above, be it at national or EU level. Martin Rojo (chapter 14) examines educational systems and the hierarchy that is created within these because of language and culture-based assumptions. Assimilationist pressure is very strong and there is little movement towards a more diverse reality on the part of educational systems. In the conclusion, Kamali places the debates on identity, belonging and migration in the context of the structural and institutional discrimination which exists in the European states. Racism and discrimination have been and are inseparable parts of European history and modernity and must be taken seriously in times when camouflaged racism is increasing. Overall, the evidence presented throughout this book illustrates the existence of widespread institutional and structural discrimination and racism in many European countries, but it also shows that such practices are often denied, resisted and contested in legal, cultural and political contexts. The book aims at scholars of social and cultural studies but its contribution to the European and national debates on migration and belonging makes it interesting background reading for those working in related fields, including socio-legal studies and legal practitioners. Although, in some places the 'sociological' language may challenge a legal readership, the viewpoints from sociologists, political theorists, social scientists, linguists and anthropologists manage to provide a much wider perspective on the subject and are worthwhile examining more closely. Journal of Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Law, Vol 26, No 1 The book aims at scholars of social and cultural studies but its contribution to the European and national debates on migration and belonging makes it interesting background reading for those working in related fields, including socio-legal studies and legal practitioners. Journal of Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Law, Vol 26, No 1

• AcknowledgementsList of FiguresNotes on ContributorsIntroduction: Migration, Discrimination and Belonging in EuropeGerard Delanty, Paul Jones and Ruth WodakI. Theoretical Perspectives on Belonging1. Belonging and European IdentityBo Strath2. Identity, Belonging and Migration: Beyond Constructing ‘Others’Paul Jones and Michal Krzyzanowski3. ‘Us’ and ‘Them’: Inclusion and Exclusion – Discrimination via DiscourseRuth Wodak4. Dilemmas of Secularism: Europe, Religion and the Problem of PluralismGerard DelantyII. Institutional Forms of Discrimination5. Racism, Anti-Racism and the Western StateAlana Lentin6. What Space for Migrant Voices in European Anti-Racism?Cagla E. Aykac7. Multiculturalization of Societies: The State and Human Rights IssuesIrene Bellier8. Towards a Theory of Structural Discrimination: Cultural, Institutional and Interactional Mechanisms of the ‘European Dilemma’Tom R. Burns9. On Institutional and Agentic Discrimination: Migrants and National Labour MarketsHelena Flam10. Non-Place Identity: Britain’s Response to Migration in the Age of SupermodernityDavid Ian HanauerIII. Cases of Belonging and Exclusion11. Symbolic ViolenceHelena Flam and Brigitte Beauzamy12. Voices of Migrants: Solidarity and ResistanceLena Sawyer (with Paul Jones)13. Transformations of ‘Dutchness’: From Happy Multiculturalism to the Crisis of Dutch LiberalismMarc de Leeuw and Sonja van Wichelen14. Competent vs. Incompetent Students: Polarization and Social Closure in Madrid SchoolsLuisa Martin RojoConclusion: Discrimination as a Modern European LegacyMasoud KamaliIndex