Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Walter Klopffer is consultant for life cycle and chemicals assessment in Frankfurt (Germany). After his studies of chemistry at the University of Graz (Austria) he was working for nearly thirty years at the Battelle Institute e.V. in Frankfurt, followed by a position at C.A.U. Ltd. in Dreieich (Germany). Since 1975 he has also been Professor of Physical Chemistry at the University of Mainz. Professor Klopffer is the founding editor and current editor-in-chief of 'The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment'. Birgit Grahl studied chemistry at the University of Hamburg (Germany). She then headed the chemistry department of the Oko-Institut e.V. Freiburg (Germany), followed by several years as co-owner and director of a commercial laboratory (Germany) and afterwards working as a freelance consultant in the field of industrial ecology. Dr. Grahl was involved in the development of the ISO 14040 series, is a member of the editorial board of 'The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment' and professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Lubeck (Germany).

'The textbook is divided into six chapters and is both very readable, as well as comprehensive. For those who wish to teach from it, extensive and quite up-to-date references are included.' (David Hunkeler 2016)

• Preface xi1 Introduction 11.1 What Is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)? 11.1.1 Definition and Limitations 11.1.2 Life Cycle of a Product 21.1.3 Functional Unit 31.1.4 LCA as System Analysis 41.1.5 LCA and Operational Input–Output Analysis (Gate-to-Gate) 51.2 History 61.2.1 Early LCAs 61.2.2 Environmental Policy Background 71.2.3 Energy Analysis 81.2.4 The 1980s 81.2.5 The Role of SETAC 91.3 The Structure of LCA 101.3.1 Structure According to SETAC 101.3.2 Structure of LCA According to ISO 111.3.3 Valuation – a Separate Phase? 121.4 Standardisation of LCA 141.4.1 Process of Formation 141.4.2 Status Quo 161.5 Literature and Information on LCA 17References 182 Goal and Scope Definition 272.1 Goal Definition 272.2 Scope 282.2.1 Product System 282.2.2 Technical System Boundary 292.2.2.1 Cut-Off Criteria 292.2.2.2 Demarcation towards System Surrounding 322.2.3 Geographical System Boundary 342.2.4 Temporal System Boundary/Time Horizon 352.2.5 The Functional Unit 372.2.5.1 Definition of a Suitable Functional Unit and a Reference Flow 372.2.5.2 Impairment Factors on Comparison – Negligible Added Value 402.2.5.3 Procedure for Non-negligible Added Value 412.2.6 Data Availability and Depth of Study 432.2.7 Further Definitions 442.2.7.1 Type of Impact Assessment 442.2.7.2 Valuation (Weighting), Assumptions and Notions of Value 452.2.7.3 Critical Review 462.2.8 Further Definitions to the Scope 472.3 Illustration of the Component ‘Definition of Goal and Scope’ Using an Example of Practice 472.3.1 Goal Definition 482.3.2 Scope 502.3.2.1 Product Systems 502.3.2.2 Technical System Boundaries and Cut-Off Criteria 532.3.2.3 Demarcation to the System Surrounding 532.3.2.4 Geographical System Boundary 542.3.2.5 Temporal System Boundary 552.3.2.6 Functional Unit and Reference Flow 552.3.2.7 Data Availability and Depth of Study 552.3.2.8 Type of Life Cycle Impact Assessment 562.3.2.9 Methods of Interpretation 572.3.2.10 Critical Review 57References 573 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 633.1 Basics 633.1.1 Scientific Principles 633.1.2 Literature on Fundamentals of the Inventory Analysis 643.1.3 The Unit Process as the Smallest Cell of LCI 653.1.3.1 Integration into the System Flow Chart 653.1.3.2 Balancing 673.1.4 Flow Charts 693.1.5 Reference Values 723.2 Energy Analysis 743.2.1 Introduction 743.2.2 Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) 773.2.2.1 Definition 773.2.2.2 Partial Amounts 773.2.2.3 Balancing Boundaries 793.2.3 Energy Content of Inflammable Materials 813.2.3.1 Fossil Fuels 813.2.3.2 Quantification 813.2.3.3 Infrastructure 843.2.4 Supply of Electricity 853.2.5 Transports 883.3 Allocation 923.3.1 Fundamentals of Allocation 923.3.2 Allocation by the Example of Co-production 923.3.2.1 Definition of Co-production 923.3.2.2 ‘Fair’ Allocation? 933.3.2.3 Proposed Solutions 983.3.2.4 Further Approaches to the Allocation of Co-products 1013.3.2.5 System Expansion 1023.3.3 Allocation and Recycling in Closed-Loops and Re-use 1053.3.4 Allocation and Recycling for Open-Loop Recycling (COLR) 1073.3.4.1 Definition of the Problem 1073.3.4.2 Allocation per Equal Parts 1093.3.4.3 Cut-off Rule 1113.3.4.4 Overall Load to System B 1133.3.5 Allocation within Waste-LCAs 1133.3.5.1 Modelling of Waste Disposal of a Product 1143.3.5.2 Comparison of Different Options of Waste Disposal 1163.3.6 Summary on Allocation 1173.4 Procurement, Origin and Quality of Data 1183.4.1 Refining the System Flow Chart and Preparing Data Procurement 1183.4.2 Procurement of Specific Data 1193.4.3 Generic Data and Partial LCIs 1273.4.3.1 Which Data are ‘Generic’? 1273.4.3.2 Reports, Publications, Web Sites 1293.4.3.3 Purchasable Data Bases and Software Systems 1313.4.4 Estimations 1323.4.5 Data Quality and Documentation 1333.5 Data Aggregation and Units 1343.6 Presentation of Inventory Results 1363.7 Illustration of the Inventory Phase by an Example 1373.7.1 Differentiated Description of the Examined Product Systems 1383.7.1.1 Materials in the Product System 1383.7.1.2 Mass Flows of the Product after Use Phase 1403.7.1.3 Handling of Sorting Residues and Mixed Plastics Fraction 1423.7.1.4 Recovery of Transport Packaging 1433.7.2 Analysis of Production, Recovery Technologies and Other Relevant Processes of the Production System 1433.7.2.1 Production Procedures of the Materials 1433.7.2.2 Production by Materials 1463.7.2.3 Distribution 1483.7.2.4 Collection and Sorting of Used Packaging 1483.7.2.5 Recovery Technologies (Recycling) 1493.7.2.6 Recycling of Transport Packagings 1513.7.2.7 Transportation by Truck 1523.7.2.8 Electricity Supply 1523.7.3 Elaboration of a Differentiated System Flow Chart with Reference Flows 1533.7.4 Allocation 1533.7.4.1 Definition of Allocation Rules on Process Level 1533.7.4.2 Definition of Allocation Rules on System Level for Open-Loop Recycling 1573.7.5 Modelling of the System 1573.7.6 Calculation of the Life Cycle Inventory 1583.7.6.1 Input 1593.7.6.2 Output 165References 1704 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 1814.1 Basic Principle of Life Cycle Impact Assessment 1814.2 Method of Critical Volumes 1834.2.1 Interpretation 1844.2.2 Criticism 1854.3 Structure of Impact Assessment according to ISO 14040 and 14044 1874.3.1 Mandatory and Optional Elements 1874.3.2 Mandatory Elements 1874.3.2.1 Selection of Impact Categories – Indicators and Characterisation Factors 1874.3.2.2 Classification 1904.3.2.3 Characterisation 1914.3.3 Optional Elements of LCIA 1924.3.3.1 Normalisation 1924.3.3.2 Grouping 1974.3.3.3 Weighting 2004.3.3.4 Additional Analysis of Data Quality 2014.4 Method of Impact Categories (Environmental Problem Fields) 2014.4.1 Introduction 2014.4.2 First (‘Historical’) Lists of the Environmental Problem Fields 2024.4.3 Stressor-Effect Relationships and Indicators 2064.4.3.1 Hierarchy of Impacts 2074.4.3.2 Potential versus Actual Impacts 2094.5 Impact Categories, Impact Indicators and Characterisation Factors 2124.5.1 Input-Related Impact Categories 2124.5.1.1 Overview 2124.5.1.2 Consumption of Abiotic Resources 2144.5.1.3 Cumulative Energy and Exergy Demand 2204.5.1.4 Consumption of Biotic Resources 2224.5.1.5 Use of (Fresh) Water 2244.5.1.6 Land Use 2274.5.2 Output-Based Impact Categories (Global and Regional Impacts) 2334.5.2.1 Overview 2334.5.2.2 Climate Change 2344.5.2.3 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 2404.5.2.4 Formation of Photo Oxidants (Summer Smog) 2464.5.2.5 Acidification 2544.5.2.6 Eutrophication 2614.5.3 Toxicity-Related Impact Categories 2684.5.3.1 Introduction 2684.5.3.2 Human Toxicity 2694.5.3.3 Ecotoxicity 2794.5.3.4 Concluding Remark on the Toxicity Categories 2854.5.4 Nuisances by Chemical and Physical Emissions 2864.5.4.1 Introduction 2864.5.4.2 Smell 2864.5.4.3 Noise 2874.5.5 Accidents and Radioactivity 2894.5.5.1 Casualties 2894.5.5.2 Radioactivity 2904.6 Illustration of the Phase Impact Assessment by Practical Example 2914.6.1 Selection of Impact Categories – Indicators and Characterisation Factors 2934.6.1.1 (Greenhouse) Global Warming Potential 2944.6.1.2 Photo-Oxidant Formation (Photo Smog or Summer Smog Potential) 2954.6.1.3 Eutrophication Potential 2964.6.1.4 Acidification Potential 2974.6.1.5 Resource Demand 2984.6.2 Classification 3004.6.3 Characterisation 3004.6.4 Normalisation 3054.6.5 Grouping 3104.6.6 Weighting 311References 3115 Life Cycle Interpretation, Reporting and Critical Review 3295.1 Development and Rank of the Interpretation Phase 3295.2 The Phase Interpretation According to ISO 3315.2.1 Interpretation in ISO 14040 3315.2.2 Interpretation in ISO 14044 3315.2.3 Identification of Significant Issues 3325.2.4 Evaluation 3335.3 Techniques for Result Analysis 3345.3.1 Scientific Background 3345.3.2 Mathematical Methods 3355.3.3 Non-numerical Methods 3385.4 Reporting 3385.5 Critical Review 3405.5.1 Outlook 3425.6 Illustration of the Component Interpretation Using an Example of Practice 3435.6.1 Comparison Based on Impact Indicator Results 3435.6.2 Comparison Based on Normalisation Results 3445.6.3 Sectoral Analysis 3445.6.4 Completeness, Consistency and Data Quality 3465.6.5 Significance of Differences 3475.6.6 Sensitivity Analyses 3485.6.7 Restrictions 3505.6.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 3515.6.9 Critical Review 351References 3526 From LCA to Sustainability Assessment 3576.1 Sustainability 3576.2 The Three Dimensions of Sustainability 3586.3 State of the Art of Methods 3616.3.1 Life Cycle Assessment – LCA 3616.3.2 Life Cycle Costing – LCC 3646.3.3 Product-Related Social Life Cycle Assessment – SLCA 3666.4 One Life Cycle Assessment or Three? 3686.4.1 Option 1 3686.4.2 Option 2 3696.5 Conclusions 370References 371Appendix A Solution of Exercises 375Appendix B Standard Report Sheet of Electricity Mix Germany (UBA 2000, Materials p. 179ff) Historic example, only for illustrative purposes 381Acronyms/Abbreviations 385Index 391