Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Forschungszentrum Jülich. Prof. Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal, Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. In 1998 he accepted the position of Director of the Institute of Materials and Process Technology at the Research Center Jülich, Germany. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten's research focuses on fuel cells, implementing results from research in innovative products, procedures and processes in collaboration with industry, contributing towards bridging the gap between science and technology. His research activities are focused on energy process engineering of SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. electrochemistry, stack tech-nology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof. Stolten represents Germany in the Executive Committee of the IEA Annex Advanced Fuel Cells and is on the advisory board of the journal Fuel Cells. Dr. Bernd Emonts is the Deputy Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Jülich Research Center, Germany. He received his diploma in structural engineering from the Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Germany, in 1981. He went on to specialize in the fundamentals of mechanical engineering at RWTH Aachen University, Germany and was awarded his PhD in 1989. Working as a scientist, Dr. Emonts has been involved in extensive research and development projects in the areas of catalytic combustion and energy systems with low-temperature fuel cells. Between 1991 and 1994, he concurrently worked as an R & D advisor for a German industrial enterprise in the drying and coating technologies sector. In addition to his scientific activities at Jülich Research Center, Germany, Dr. Emonts lectured at Aachen University of Applied Sciences from 1999 to 2008. Dr. Emonts has published extensively in the field of Hydrogen Sciences and Fuel Cells.

• List of Contributors xxxiVolume 1Part 1 Industrial Utilization of Hydrogen 11 Hydrogen in Refineries 3James G. Speight1.1 Introduction 31.2 Hydroprocesses 41.3 Refining Heavy Feedstocks 111.4 Hydrogen Production 121.5 Hydrogen Management 14References 172 Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 19Florian Ausfelder and Alexis Bazzanella2.1 Introduction 192.2 Sources of Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 222.3 Utilization of Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 32References 383 Chlorine–Alkaline Electrolysis – Technology and Use and Economy 41Alessandro Delfrate3.1 Introduction 413.2 Production Technologies 423.3 Use of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide 52References 56Part 2 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 57Part 2.1 Introduction and National Strategies 574 Hydrogen Research, Development, Demonstration, and Market Deployment Activities 59Jochen Linssen and Jürgen-Friedrich Hake4.1 Introduction 594.2 Germany 604.3 Norway 654.4 European Union 684.5 Canada 704.7 Japan 784.8 International Networks 80Acknowledgment 82References 82Part 2.2 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 855 Solar Thermal Water Decomposition 87Christian Sattler, Nathalie Monnerie, Martin Roeb, and Matthias Lange5.1 Introduction 875.2 Historical Development 885.3 Present State of Work 895.4 Conclusion and Outlook 102Nomenclature 103References 1036 Supercritical Water Gasification for Biomass-Based Hydrogen Production 109Andrea Kruse6.1 Introduction 1096.2 Model Compounds 1136.3 Biomass 1166.4 Catalysts 1196.5 Challenges 1196.6 Scale-Up and Technical Application 1226.7 New Developments 1226.8 Conclusion 123References 1237 Plasma-Based Production of Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons 131Abdullah Aitani, Shakeel Ahmed, and Fahad Al-Muhaish7.1 Introduction 1317.2 Non-thermal Plasma 1327.3 Thermal Plasma 1447.4 Concluding Remarks 146Acknowledgment 147References 1478 Solar Thermal Reforming 151Christos Agrafiotis, Henrik von Storch, Martin Roeb, and Christian Sattler8.1 Introduction 1518.2 Hydrogen Production via Methane Reforming 1528.3 Solar-Aided Methane Reforming 1548.4 Current Development Status and Future Prospects 167References 1699 Fuel Processing for Utilization in Fuel Cells 173Ralf Peters9.1 Introduction 1739.2 Scope of the Work and Methodical Approach 1749.3 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 1759.4 Unit Operations 1809.5 Subsystems of Fuel Processing 1929.6 Conclusion 208Acknowledgments 209References 20910 Small-Scale Reforming for On-Site Hydrogen Supply 217Ingrid Schjølberg, Christian Hulteberg, and Dick Lieftink10.1 Introduction 21710.2 Definition 21810.3 Reforming Technologies 21910.4 Feedstock Options 22310.5 Suppliers and Products 22510.5.1 Cost Trends 22510.6 Emerging Technologies 22810.7 Process Control 23210.8 Safety 23410.9 Conclusion 235References 23511 Industrial Hydrogen Production from Hydrocarbon Fuels and Biomass 237Andreas Jess and Peter Wasserscheid11.1 Options to Produce Hydrogen from Fuels–An Overview 23711.2 Hydrogen Production from Solid Fuels (Coal, Biomass) 24211.3 Syngas by Partial Oxidation of Heavy Oils 24411.4 Syngas by Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 24611.5 Conclusions 249References 251Part 2.3 H 2 from Electricity 25312 Electrolysis Systems for Grid Relieving 255Filip Smeets and Jan Vaes12.1 Introduction 25512.2 Energy Policies around the Globe Drive Demand for Energy Storage 25612.3 The Options for Integration of Intermittent Renewable Energy Sources 26112.4 The Evolution of the Demand for Energy Storage 26812.5 The Role of Electrolyzers in the Energy Transition 27012.6 The Overall Business Case and Outlook 27412.7 Conclusions 278References 27913 Status and Prospects of Alkaline Electrolysis 283Dongke Zhang and Kai Zeng13.1 Introduction 28313.2 Thermodynamic Consideration 28513.2.1 Theoretical Cell Voltages 28513.3 Electrode Kinetics 28713.4 Electrical and Transport Resistances 29213.5 Research Trends 29713.6 Summary 303References 30414 Dynamic Operation of Electrolyzers – Systems Design and Operating Strategies 309Geert Tjarks, Jürgen Mergel, and Detlef Stolten14.1 Introduction 30914.2 Process Steps and System Components 31014.3 Dynamic Operation of Electrolyzers 31714.4 System Design Criterion 32214.5 Conclusion 327References 32815 Stack Technology for PEM Electrolysis 331Jürgen Mergel, David L. Fritz, and Marcelo Carmo15.1 Introduction to Electrolysis 33115.2 General Principles of PEM Electrolysis 33515.3 Summary 355References 35616 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology for Hydrogen/Syngas and Power Production 359Nguyen Q. Minh16.1 Introduction 35916.2 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Overview 35916.3 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology 36616.4 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell Technology 37216.5 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology 37916.6 Summary 383References 383Part 2.4 H 2 from Biomass 39117 Assessment of Selected Concepts for Hydrogen Production Based on Biomass 393Franziska Müller-Langer, Konstantin Zech, Stefan Rönsch, Katja Oehmichen,Julia Michaelis, Simon Funke, and Elias Grasemann17.1 Introduction 39317.2 Characteristics of Selected Hydrogen Concepts 39417.3 Concept Assessment of Technical Aspects 40117.4 Concept Assessment of Environmental Aspects 40217.5 Concept Assessment of Economic Aspects 40617.6 Summary 411Acknowledgment 411References 41218 Production Process via Fermentation 417Balachandar G., Shantonu Roy, and Debabrata Das18.1 Introduction 41718.2 Hydrogen Production from Biomass as Feedstock 42218.3 Reactor Configurations and Scale-Up Challenges 42718.4 Economics and Barriers 43018.5 Future Prospects 43118.6 Conclusion 431Acknowledgment 432References 432Part 2.5 Hydrogen from Solar Radiation and Algae 43919 Photoelectrochemical Water Decomposition 441Sebastian Fiechter19.1 Introduction 44119.2 Principles of Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 44219.3 Design of Water Splitting Devices 44819.4 Nano- and Microstructured Photoelectrodes 45519.5 Economic Aspects 45719.6 Concluding Remarks 457References 45820 Current Insights to Enhance Hydrogen Production by Photosynthetic Organisms 461Roshan Sharma Poudyal, Indira Tiwari, Mohammad Mahdi Najafpour, Dmitry A. Los, Robert Carpentier, Jian-Ren Shen, and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev20.1 Introduction 46120.2 Biological H 2 Production 46320.3 Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae and Cyanobacteria for H 2 Production 46520.4 Hydrogenase and Nitrogenase for H 2 Production 46620.5 Photosystems and H 2 Production 46920.6 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production 47020.7 Designing the Photosynthetic H 2 Production 47120.8 Leaf and Solar H 2 Production 47220.9 Biofuel and Hydrogen Production by Other Organisms 47320.10 Available Methods to Enhance Photosynthetic Hydrogen Production 47420.11 Application of Biohydrogen 47720.12 Conclusion and Future Prospectus 477Acknowledgments 478Abbreviations 478References 478Part 2.6 Gas Clean-up Technologies 48921 PSA Technology for H 2 Separation 491Carlos A. Grande21.1 Introduction 49121.2 Basics of PSA Technology 49221.3 Selective Adsorbents; Commercial and New Materials 49921.4 Improving the PSA Cycle 50121.5 Summary 503Acknowledgments 504References 50422 Hydrogen Separation with Polymeric Membranes 509Torsten Brinkmann and Sergey Shishatskiy22.1 History 50922.2 Basics of Membrane Gas Separation 51022.3 Hydrogen Separation and Fractionation by Gas Permeation 51622.4 Membrane Materials and Modules 51922.5 Process Examples 53122.6 Conclusions 535Nomenclature 536References 53723 Gas Clean-up for Fuel Cell Systems – Requirements & Technologies 543Matthias Gaderer, Stephan Herrmann, and Sebastian Fendt23.1 Introduction 54323.2 Background 54323.3 Fuel and Pollutants 54523.4 Pollutant Level Requirements 55023.5 Technologies to Remove Pollutants 551References 559Volume 2Part 3 Hydrogen for Storage of Renewable Energy 56324 Physics of Hydrogen 565Carsten Korte, Tabea Mandt, and Timm Bergholz24.1 Introduction 56524.2 Molecular Hydrogen 56524.3 Hydrides 588References 59825 Thermodynamics of Pressurized Gas Storage 601Vanessa Tietze and Detlef Stolten25.1 Introduction 60125.2 Calculation of Thermodynamic State Variables 60225.3 Comparison of Thermodynamic Properties 60625.4 Thermodynamic Analysis of Compression and Expansion Processes 61025.5 Thermodynamic Modeling of the Storage Process 61725.6 Application Examples 62025.7 Conclusion 624References 62526 Geologic Storage of Hydrogen – Fundamentals, Processing, and Projects 629Axel Liebscher, Jürgen Wackerl, and Martin Streibel26.1 Introduction 62926.2 Fundamental Aspects of Geological Hydrogen Storage 63126.3 Process Engineering 64226.4 Experiences from Storage Projects 64926.5 Concluding Remarks 654References 65527 Bulk Storage Vessels for Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen 659Vanessa Tietze, Sebastian Luhr, and Detlef Stolten27.1 Introduction 65927.2 Stationary Application Areas and Requirements 66027.3 Storage Parameters 66127.4 Compressed Hydrogen Storage 66227.5 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen Storage 67027.6 Cost Estimates and Economic Targets 67527.7 Technical Assessment 67827.8 Conclusion 683References 68428 Hydrogen Storage in Vehicles 691Jens Franzen, Steffen Maus, and Peter Potzel28.1 Introduction: Requirements for Hydrogen Storage in Vehicles 69128.2 Advantages of Pressurized Storage over Other Storage Methods 69328.3 Design of a Tank System 69528.4 Specific Requirements for Compressed Gas Systems for Vehicles 69928.5 Special Forms of Compressed Gas Storage 70428.6 Conclusion 707References 70729 Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Storage 711Tobias Brunner and Oliver Kircher29.1 Motivation for Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Storage 71129.2 Thermodynamic Opportunities 71429.3 Refueling and Infrastructure Perspectives 71729.4 Design and Operating Principles 71929.5 Validation Challenges of Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Storage 72529.6 Summary 731References 73130 Hydrogen Liquefaction 733Alexander Alekseev30.1 Introduction 73330.2 History of Hydrogen Liquefaction 73430.3 Hydrogen Properties at Low Temperature 73530.4 Principles of Hydrogen Liquefaction 73930.5 Key Hardware Components 75130.6 Outlook 760References 76131 Hydrogen Storage by Reversible Metal Hydride Formation 763Ping Chen, Etsuo Akiba, Shin-ichi Orimo, Andreas Zuettel, and Louis Schlapbach31.1 Introduction 76331.2 Summary of Energy Relevant Properties of Hydrogen and its Isotopes 76431.3 Hydrogen Interaction with Metals, Alloys and Other Inorganic Solids 76431.4 Hydrogen Storage in Intermetallic Compounds 76731.5 Hydrogen Storage in Complex Hydrides 77331.6 Physisorption and High Open-Porosity Structures for Molecular Hydrogen Storage 78131.7 Other Energy Relevant Applications of Hydrogen Interacting Materials 78431.8 Conclusions and Outlook 785References 78632 Implementing Hydrogen Storage Based on Metal Hydrides 791R.K. Ahluwalia, J.-K. Peng, and T.Q. Hua32.1 Introduction 79132.2 Material Requirements 79232.3 Reverse Engineering: A Case Study 80032.4 Summary and Conclusions 807Acknowledgments 808References 80833 Transport and Storage of Hydrogen via Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems 811Daniel Teichmann, Wolfgang Arlt, Eberhard Schlücker, and Peter Wasserscheid33.1 Hydrogen Storage and Transport for Managing Unsteady Renewable Energy Production 81133.2 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems 81433.3 Development of LOHC-Based Energy Storage Systems 81933.4 Applications of LOHC-Based Energy Storage Systems 82233.5 Conclusions 828References 829Part 4 Traded Hydrogen 83134 Economics of Hydrogen for Transportation 833Akiteru Maruta34.1 Introduction 83334.2 Hydrogen Transportation System 83334.3 Economics of Hydrogen for Transportation 83634.4 Conclusion 845References 84635 Challenges and Opportunities of Hydrogen Delivery via Pipeline, Tube-Trailer, LIQUID Tanker and Methanation-Natural Gas Grid 849Krishna Reddi, Marianne Mintz, Amgad Elgowainy, and Erika Sutherland35.1 Introduction 84935.2 Variation in Demand for Hydrogen 85035.3 Refueling Station Components and Layout 85235.4 Distributed Production of Hydrogen 85635.5 Central or Semi-central Production of Hydrogen 85735.6 Power-to-Gas Mass Energy Solution (Methanation) 86635.7 Outlook and Summary 870Note 871References 87236 Pipelines for Hydrogen Distribution 875Sabine Sievers and Dennis Krieg36.1 Introduction 87536.2 Overview 87536.3 Brief Summary of Pipeline Construction 87936.4 Operation of an H 2 Pipeline 88636.5 Decommissioning/Dismantling/Reclassification 88836.6 Conclusion 888References 88937 Refueling Station Layout 891Patrick Schnell37.1 Introduction 89137.2 Basic Requirements for a Hydrogen Refueling Station 89237.3 Technical Concepts for Hydrogen Filling Stations 89537.4 Challenges 90737.5 Conclusion 913References 914Part 5 Handling of Hydrogen 91738 Regulations and Codes and Standards for the Approval of Hydrogen Refueling Stations 919Reinhold Wurster38.1 Introduction 91938.2 European Union and Germany 924References 93039 Safe Handling of Hydrogen 933William Hoagland39.1 Introduction 93339.2 Hydrogen Safety and the Elements of Risk 93439.3 The Unique, Safety-Related Properties of Hydrogen 93739.4 General Considerations for the Safe Handling of Hydrogen 93839.5 Regulations, Codes, and Standards 94039.6 International Collaborations to Prioritize Hydrogen Safety Research 94239.7 Current Directions in Hydrogen Safety Research [6] 94339.8 Summary 947References 948Bibliography 948Part 6 Existing and Emerging Systems 94940 Hydrogen in Space Applications 951Jérôme Lacapere40.1 Liquid Hydrogen for Access to Space 95140.2 To Go Beyond GTO 95440.3 Relevant Tests in Low Gravity Environment 95840.4 In-Space Propulsion 96040.5 Conclusion 961References 96341 Transportation/Propulsion/Demonstration/Buses: The Design of the Fuel Cell Powertrain for Urban Transportation Applications (Daimler) 965Wolfram Fleck41.1 Introduction 96541.2 Operational Environment 96641.3 Requirements 96741.4 Design Solutions 97341.5 Test and Field Experience 98241.6 Future Outlook 986References 99042 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Submarines 991Stefan Krummrich and Albert Hammerschmidt42.1 Background 99142.2 The HDW Fuel Cell AIP System 99242.3 PEM Fuel Cells for Submarines 99342.4 Hydrogen Storage 100242.5 The Usage of Pure Oxygen 100442.6 System Technology – Differences Between HDW Class 212A and Class 214 Submarines 100542.7 Safety Concept 100642.8 Developments for the Future – Methanol Reformer for Submarines 100642.9 Conclusion 1009References 101043 Gas Turbines and Hydrogen 1011Peter Griebel43.1 Introduction 101143.2 Combustion Fundamentals of Hydrogen relevant for Gas Turbines 101243.3 State-of-the-art Gas Turbine Technology for Hydrogen 101943.4 Research and Development Status, New Combustion Technologies 102243.5 Concluding Remarks 1028References 102844 Hydrogen Hybrid Power Plant in Prenzlau, Brandenburg 1033Ulrich R. Fischer, Hans-Joachim Krautz, Michael Wenske, Daniel Tannert, Perco Krüger, and Christian Ziems44.1 Introduction 103344.2 Description of the Concept of the Hybrid Power Plant at Prenzlau 103544.3 Operating Modes of the Hybrid Power Plant 104244.4 Operational Management and Experiences 104544.5 Outlook 1050References 105145 Wind Energy and Hydrogen Integration Projects in Spain 1053Luis Correas, Jesús Simón, and Milagros Rey45.1 Introduction 105345.2 The Role of Hydrogen in Wind Electricity Generation 105545.3 Description of Wind–Hydrogen Projects 105945.4 Operation Strategies Tested in the Sotavento Project 106645.5 Conclusions 1071References 107246 Hydrogen Islands – Utilization of Renewable Energy for an Autonomous Power Supply 1075Frano Barbir46.1 Introduction 107546.2 Existing Hydrogen Projects on Islands 107746.3 System Design/Configuration 108246.4 Key Technologies 108346.5 System Issues 108746.6 Sizing 108846.7 Energy Management 109046.8 Other Uses/System Configurations 109246.9 Conclusions 1093References 1094Index 1097

Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Forschungszentrum Jülich. Prof. Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal, Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. In 1998 he accepted the position of Director of the Institute of Materials and Process Technology at the Research Center Jülich, Germany. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten's research focuses on fuel cells, implementing results from research in innovative products, procedures and processes in collaboration with industry, contributing towards bridging the gap between science and technology. His research activities are focused on energy process engineering of SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. electrochemistry, stack tech-nology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof. Stolten represents Germany in the Executive Committee of the IEA Annex Advanced Fuel Cells and is on the advisory board of the journal Fuel Cells. Dr. Bernd Emonts is the Deputy Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Jülich Research Center, Germany. He received his diploma in structural engineering from the Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Germany, in 1981. He went on to specialize in the fundamentals of mechanical engineering at RWTH Aachen University, Germany and was awarded his PhD in 1989. Working as a scientist, Dr. Emonts has been involved in extensive research and development projects in the areas of catalytic combustion and energy systems with low-temperature fuel cells. Between 1991 and 1994, he concurrently worked as an R & D advisor for a German industrial enterprise in the drying and coating technologies sector. In addition to his scientific activities at Jülich Research Center, Germany, Dr. Emonts lectured at Aachen University of Applied Sciences from 1999 to 2008. Dr. Emonts has published extensively in the field of Hydrogen Sciences and Fuel Cells.

• List of Contributors xxxiVolume 1Part 1 Industrial Utilization of Hydrogen 11 Hydrogen in Refineries 3James G. Speight1.1 Introduction 31.2 Hydroprocesses 41.3 Refining Heavy Feedstocks 111.4 Hydrogen Production 121.5 Hydrogen Management 14References 172 Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 19Florian Ausfelder and Alexis Bazzanella2.1 Introduction 192.2 Sources of Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 222.3 Utilization of Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 32References 383 Chlorine–Alkaline Electrolysis – Technology and Use and Economy 41Alessandro Delfrate3.1 Introduction 413.2 Production Technologies 423.3 Use of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide 52References 56Part 2 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 57Part 2.1 Introduction and National Strategies 574 Hydrogen Research, Development, Demonstration, and Market Deployment Activities 59Jochen Linssen and Jürgen-Friedrich Hake4.1 Introduction 594.2 Germany 604.3 Norway 654.4 European Union 684.5 Canada 704.7 Japan 784.8 International Networks 80Acknowledgment 82References 82Part 2.2 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 855 Solar Thermal Water Decomposition 87Christian Sattler, Nathalie Monnerie, Martin Roeb, and Matthias Lange5.1 Introduction 875.2 Historical Development 885.3 Present State of Work 895.4 Conclusion and Outlook 102Nomenclature 103References 1036 Supercritical Water Gasification for Biomass-Based Hydrogen Production 109Andrea Kruse6.1 Introduction 1096.2 Model Compounds 1136.3 Biomass 1166.4 Catalysts 1196.5 Challenges 1196.6 Scale-Up and Technical Application 1226.7 New Developments 1226.8 Conclusion 123References 1237 Plasma-Based Production of Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons 131Abdullah Aitani, Shakeel Ahmed, and Fahad Al-Muhaish7.1 Introduction 1317.2 Non-thermal Plasma 1327.3 Thermal Plasma 1447.4 Concluding Remarks 146Acknowledgment 147References 1478 Solar Thermal Reforming 151Christos Agrafiotis, Henrik von Storch, Martin Roeb, and Christian Sattler8.1 Introduction 1518.2 Hydrogen Production via Methane Reforming 1528.3 Solar-Aided Methane Reforming 1548.4 Current Development Status and Future Prospects 167References 1699 Fuel Processing for Utilization in Fuel Cells 173Ralf Peters9.1 Introduction 1739.2 Scope of the Work and Methodical Approach 1749.3 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 1759.4 Unit Operations 1809.5 Subsystems of Fuel Processing 1929.6 Conclusion 208Acknowledgments 209References 20910 Small-Scale Reforming for On-Site Hydrogen Supply 217Ingrid Schjølberg, Christian Hulteberg, and Dick Lieftink10.1 Introduction 21710.2 Definition 21810.3 Reforming Technologies 21910.4 Feedstock Options 22310.5 Suppliers and Products 22510.5.1 Cost Trends 22510.6 Emerging Technologies 22810.7 Process Control 23210.8 Safety 23410.9 Conclusion 235References 23511 Industrial Hydrogen Production from Hydrocarbon Fuels and Biomass 237Andreas Jess and Peter Wasserscheid11.1 Options to Produce Hydrogen from Fuels–An Overview 23711.2 Hydrogen Production from Solid Fuels (Coal, Biomass) 24211.3 Syngas by Partial Oxidation of Heavy Oils 24411.4 Syngas by Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 24611.5 Conclusions 249References 251Part 2.3 H 2 from Electricity 25312 Electrolysis Systems for Grid Relieving 255Filip Smeets and Jan Vaes12.1 Introduction 25512.2 Energy Policies around the Globe Drive Demand for Energy Storage 25612.3 The Options for Integration of Intermittent Renewable Energy Sources 26112.4 The Evolution of the Demand for Energy Storage 26812.5 The Role of Electrolyzers in the Energy Transition 27012.6 The Overall Business Case and Outlook 27412.7 Conclusions 278References 27913 Status and Prospects of Alkaline Electrolysis 283Dongke Zhang and Kai Zeng13.1 Introduction 28313.2 Thermodynamic Consideration 28513.2.1 Theoretical Cell Voltages 28513.3 Electrode Kinetics 28713.4 Electrical and Transport Resistances 29213.5 Research Trends 29713.6 Summary 303References 30414 Dynamic Operation of Electrolyzers – Systems Design and Operating Strategies 309Geert Tjarks, Jürgen Mergel, and Detlef Stolten14.1 Introduction 30914.2 Process Steps and System Components 31014.3 Dynamic Operation of Electrolyzers 31714.4 System Design Criterion 32214.5 Conclusion 327References 32815 Stack Technology for PEM Electrolysis 331Jürgen Mergel, David L. Fritz, and Marcelo Carmo15.1 Introduction to Electrolysis 33115.2 General Principles of PEM Electrolysis 33515.3 Summary 355References 35616 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology for Hydrogen/Syngas and Power Production 359Nguyen Q. Minh16.1 Introduction 35916.2 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Overview 35916.3 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology 36616.4 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell Technology 37216.5 Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology 37916.6 Summary 383References 383Part 2.4 H 2 from Biomass 39117 Assessment of Selected Concepts for Hydrogen Production Based on Biomass 393Franziska Müller-Langer, Konstantin Zech, Stefan Rönsch, Katja Oehmichen,Julia Michaelis, Simon Funke, and Elias Grasemann17.1 Introduction 39317.2 Characteristics of Selected Hydrogen Concepts 39417.3 Concept Assessment of Technical Aspects 40117.4 Concept Assessment of Environmental Aspects 40217.5 Concept Assessment of Economic Aspects 40617.6 Summary 411Acknowledgment 411References 41218 Production Process via Fermentation 417Balachandar G., Shantonu Roy, and Debabrata Das18.1 Introduction 41718.2 Hydrogen Production from Biomass as Feedstock 42218.3 Reactor Configurations and Scale-Up Challenges 42718.4 Economics and Barriers 43018.5 Future Prospects 43118.6 Conclusion 431Acknowledgment 432References 432Part 2.5 Hydrogen from Solar Radiation and Algae 43919 Photoelectrochemical Water Decomposition 441Sebastian Fiechter19.1 Introduction 44119.2 Principles of Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 44219.3 Design of Water Splitting Devices 44819.4 Nano- and Microstructured Photoelectrodes 45519.5 Economic Aspects 45719.6 Concluding Remarks 457References 45820 Current Insights to Enhance Hydrogen Production by Photosynthetic Organisms 461Roshan Sharma Poudyal, Indira Tiwari, Mohammad Mahdi Najafpour, Dmitry A. Los, Robert Carpentier, Jian-Ren Shen, and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev20.1 Introduction 46120.2 Biological H 2 Production 46320.3 Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae and Cyanobacteria for H 2 Production 46520.4 Hydrogenase and Nitrogenase for H 2 Production 46620.5 Photosystems and H 2 Production 46920.6 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production 47020.7 Designing the Photosynthetic H 2 Production 47120.8 Leaf and Solar H 2 Production 47220.9 Biofuel and Hydrogen Production by Other Organisms 47320.10 Available Methods to Enhance Photosynthetic Hydrogen Production 47420.11 Application of Biohydrogen 47720.12 Conclusion and Future Prospectus 477Acknowledgments 478Abbreviations 478References 478Part 2.6 Gas Clean-up Technologies 48921 PSA Technology for H 2 Separation 491Carlos A. Grande21.1 Introduction 49121.2 Basics of PSA Technology 49221.3 Selective Adsorbents; Commercial and New Materials 49921.4 Improving the PSA Cycle 50121.5 Summary 503Acknowledgments 504References 50422 Hydrogen Separation with Polymeric Membranes 509Torsten Brinkmann and Sergey Shishatskiy22.1 History 50922.2 Basics of Membrane Gas Separation 51022.3 Hydrogen Separation and Fractionation by Gas Permeation 51622.4 Membrane Materials and Modules 51922.5 Process Examples 53122.6 Conclusions 535Nomenclature 536References 53723 Gas Clean-up for Fuel Cell Systems – Requirements & Technologies 543Matthias Gaderer, Stephan Herrmann, and Sebastian Fendt23.1 Introduction 54323.2 Background 54323.3 Fuel and Pollutants 54523.4 Pollutant Level Requirements 55023.5 Technologies to Remove Pollutants 551References 559Volume 2Part 3 Hydrogen for Storage of Renewable Energy 56324 Physics of Hydrogen 565Carsten Korte, Tabea Mandt, and Timm Bergholz24.1 Introduction 56524.2 Molecular Hydrogen 56524.3 Hydrides 588References 59825 Thermodynamics of Pressurized Gas Storage 601Vanessa Tietze and Detlef Stolten25.1 Introduction 60125.2 Calculation of Thermodynamic State Variables 60225.3 Comparison of Thermodynamic Properties 60625.4 Thermodynamic Analysis of Compression and Expansion Processes 61025.5 Thermodynamic Modeling of the Storage Process 61725.6 Application Examples 62025.7 Conclusion 624References 62526 Geologic Storage of Hydrogen – Fundamentals, Processing, and Projects 629Axel Liebscher, Jürgen Wackerl, and Martin Streibel26.1 Introduction 62926.2 Fundamental Aspects of Geological Hydrogen Storage 63126.3 Process Engineering 64226.4 Experiences from Storage Projects 64926.5 Concluding Remarks 654References 65527 Bulk Storage Vessels for Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen 659Vanessa Tietze, Sebastian Luhr, and Detlef Stolten27.1 Introduction 65927.2 Stationary Application Areas and Requirements 66027.3 Storage Parameters 66127.4 Compressed Hydrogen Storage 66227.5 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen Storage 67027.6 Cost Estimates and Economic Targets 67527.7 Technical Assessment 67827.8 Conclusion 683References 68428 Hydrogen Storage in Vehicles 691Jens Franzen, Steffen Maus, and Peter Potzel28.1 Introduction: Requirements for Hydrogen Storage in Vehicles 69128.2 Advantages of Pressurized Storage over Other Storage Methods 69328.3 Design of a Tank System 69528.4 Specific Requirements for Compressed Gas Systems for Vehicles 69928.5 Special Forms of Compressed Gas Storage 70428.6 Conclusion 707References 70729 Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Storage 711Tobias Brunner and Oliver Kircher29.1 Motivation for Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Storage 71129.2 Thermodynamic Opportunities 71429.3 Refueling and Infrastructure Perspectives 71729.4 Design and Operating Principles 71929.5 Validation Challenges of Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Vehicle Storage 72529.6 Summary 731References 73130 Hydrogen Liquefaction 733Alexander Alekseev30.1 Introduction 73330.2 History of Hydrogen Liquefaction 73430.3 Hydrogen Properties at Low Temperature 73530.4 Principles of Hydrogen Liquefaction 73930.5 Key Hardware Components 75130.6 Outlook 760References 76131 Hydrogen Storage by Reversible Metal Hydride Formation 763Ping Chen, Etsuo Akiba, Shin-ichi Orimo, Andreas Zuettel, and Louis Schlapbach31.1 Introduction 76331.2 Summary of Energy Relevant Properties of Hydrogen and its Isotopes 76431.3 Hydrogen Interaction with Metals, Alloys and Other Inorganic Solids 76431.4 Hydrogen Storage in Intermetallic Compounds 76731.5 Hydrogen Storage in Complex Hydrides 77331.6 Physisorption and High Open-Porosity Structures for Molecular Hydrogen Storage 78131.7 Other Energy Relevant Applications of Hydrogen Interacting Materials 78431.8 Conclusions and Outlook 785References 78632 Implementing Hydrogen Storage Based on Metal Hydrides 791R.K. Ahluwalia, J.-K. Peng, and T.Q. Hua32.1 Introduction 79132.2 Material Requirements 79232.3 Reverse Engineering: A Case Study 80032.4 Summary and Conclusions 807Acknowledgments 808References 80833 Transport and Storage of Hydrogen via Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems 811Daniel Teichmann, Wolfgang Arlt, Eberhard Schlücker, and Peter Wasserscheid33.1 Hydrogen Storage and Transport for Managing Unsteady Renewable Energy Production 81133.2 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems 81433.3 Development of LOHC-Based Energy Storage Systems 81933.4 Applications of LOHC-Based Energy Storage Systems 82233.5 Conclusions 828References 829Part 4 Traded Hydrogen 83134 Economics of Hydrogen for Transportation 833Akiteru Maruta34.1 Introduction 83334.2 Hydrogen Transportation System 83334.3 Economics of Hydrogen for Transportation 83634.4 Conclusion 845References 84635 Challenges and Opportunities of Hydrogen Delivery via Pipeline, Tube-Trailer, LIQUID Tanker and Methanation-Natural Gas Grid 849Krishna Reddi, Marianne Mintz, Amgad Elgowainy, and Erika Sutherland35.1 Introduction 84935.2 Variation in Demand for Hydrogen 85035.3 Refueling Station Components and Layout 85235.4 Distributed Production of Hydrogen 85635.5 Central or Semi-central Production of Hydrogen 85735.6 Power-to-Gas Mass Energy Solution (Methanation) 86635.7 Outlook and Summary 870Note 871References 87236 Pipelines for Hydrogen Distribution 875Sabine Sievers and Dennis Krieg36.1 Introduction 87536.2 Overview 87536.3 Brief Summary of Pipeline Construction 87936.4 Operation of an H 2 Pipeline 88636.5 Decommissioning/Dismantling/Reclassification 88836.6 Conclusion 888References 88937 Refueling Station Layout 891Patrick Schnell37.1 Introduction 89137.2 Basic Requirements for a Hydrogen Refueling Station 89237.3 Technical Concepts for Hydrogen Filling Stations 89537.4 Challenges 90737.5 Conclusion 913References 914Part 5 Handling of Hydrogen 91738 Regulations and Codes and Standards for the Approval of Hydrogen Refueling Stations 919Reinhold Wurster38.1 Introduction 91938.2 European Union and Germany 924References 93039 Safe Handling of Hydrogen 933William Hoagland39.1 Introduction 93339.2 Hydrogen Safety and the Elements of Risk 93439.3 The Unique, Safety-Related Properties of Hydrogen 93739.4 General Considerations for the Safe Handling of Hydrogen 93839.5 Regulations, Codes, and Standards 94039.6 International Collaborations to Prioritize Hydrogen Safety Research 94239.7 Current Directions in Hydrogen Safety Research [6] 94339.8 Summary 947References 948Bibliography 948Part 6 Existing and Emerging Systems 94940 Hydrogen in Space Applications 951Jérôme Lacapere40.1 Liquid Hydrogen for Access to Space 95140.2 To Go Beyond GTO 95440.3 Relevant Tests in Low Gravity Environment 95840.4 In-Space Propulsion 96040.5 Conclusion 961References 96341 Transportation/Propulsion/Demonstration/Buses: The Design of the Fuel Cell Powertrain for Urban Transportation Applications (Daimler) 965Wolfram Fleck41.1 Introduction 96541.2 Operational Environment 96641.3 Requirements 96741.4 Design Solutions 97341.5 Test and Field Experience 98241.6 Future Outlook 986References 99042 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Submarines 991Stefan Krummrich and Albert Hammerschmidt42.1 Background 99142.2 The HDW Fuel Cell AIP System 99242.3 PEM Fuel Cells for Submarines 99342.4 Hydrogen Storage 100242.5 The Usage of Pure Oxygen 100442.6 System Technology – Differences Between HDW Class 212A and Class 214 Submarines 100542.7 Safety Concept 100642.8 Developments for the Future – Methanol Reformer for Submarines 100642.9 Conclusion 1009References 101043 Gas Turbines and Hydrogen 1011Peter Griebel43.1 Introduction 101143.2 Combustion Fundamentals of Hydrogen relevant for Gas Turbines 101243.3 State-of-the-art Gas Turbine Technology for Hydrogen 101943.4 Research and Development Status, New Combustion Technologies 102243.5 Concluding Remarks 1028References 102844 Hydrogen Hybrid Power Plant in Prenzlau, Brandenburg 1033Ulrich R. Fischer, Hans-Joachim Krautz, Michael Wenske, Daniel Tannert, Perco Krüger, and Christian Ziems44.1 Introduction 103344.2 Description of the Concept of the Hybrid Power Plant at Prenzlau 103544.3 Operating Modes of the Hybrid Power Plant 104244.4 Operational Management and Experiences 104544.5 Outlook 1050References 105145 Wind Energy and Hydrogen Integration Projects in Spain 1053Luis Correas, Jesús Simón, and Milagros Rey45.1 Introduction 105345.2 The Role of Hydrogen in Wind Electricity Generation 105545.3 Description of Wind–Hydrogen Projects 105945.4 Operation Strategies Tested in the Sotavento Project 106645.5 Conclusions 1071References 107246 Hydrogen Islands – Utilization of Renewable Energy for an Autonomous Power Supply 1075Frano Barbir46.1 Introduction 107546.2 Existing Hydrogen Projects on Islands 107746.3 System Design/Configuration 108246.4 Key Technologies 108346.5 System Issues 108746.6 Sizing 108846.7 Energy Management 109046.8 Other Uses/System Configurations 109246.9 Conclusions 1093References 1094Index 1097