Engineering, Medicine and Science at the Nano-Scale

Stephen Fonash is Chaired Professor of Engineering Sciences at Penn State University, USA. During his academic career he received numerous honors and awards, including a fellowship of the Electrochemical Society and the Thomas D. Callinan Award for outstanding contributions to dielectric science and technology. He is also Director of the National Science Foundation Nanotechnology Applications and Career Knowledge Center, Founder and Director of the Penn State Center for Nanotechnology Education and Utilization, and co-founder and chief technical officer of Solarity, LLC, State College, PA. Marcel Van de Voorde is special advisor at IMEC, Belgium. He studied industrial and chemical engineering and received his PhD in nuclear engineering from the University of Nancy, France. He was co-founder and professor at the Hoger Instituut der Kempen, Geel, and the Technical Institute Don Bosco, Hoboken in Belgium. He further holds professorships at the Catholic University of Leuven, Ghent University, Delft University of Technology and is visiting professor at several recognized universities in Europe, US, Japan and China.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgment xv1 Nanotechnology:What,Why, andWhy Now? 11.1 What Is Nanotechnology? 11.2 Why Is Nanotechnology So Unique? 31.3 Where Did Nanotechnology Come From? 111.4 Why Has Nanotechnology Burst Forth Now? 122 Some Physics Fundamentals Pertinent to Nanotechnology 152.1 Introduction 152.2 Some Pertinent Physics Fundamentals 152.2.1 Energy Quantization 152.2.2 Wave–Particle Duality 172.2.3 Particles andWaves 172.2.3.1 Electrons and ProbabilityWaves 192.2.3.2 Photons and E-MWaves 222.2.4 Some Further Aspects of QuantumMechanics 252.2.4.1 Tunneling 252.2.4.2 Uncertainty 272.2.4.3 Quantum Fluctuations 272.2.4.4 Entanglement 282.2.5 Statistics and Thermodynamics 292.2.5.1 StatisticalMechanics 292.2.5.2 Thermal Fluctuations 333 Some Chemistry Fundamentals Pertinent to Nanotechnology 353.1 Introduction 353.2 Some Pertinent Chemistry Fundamentals 353.2.1 The Single Electron Atom 353.2.2 Multielectron Atoms 393.2.3 Nanoparticles 403.2.3.1 Functionalized Nanoparticles 403.2.3.2 Nanoparticle Assembly 413.2.4 Chemical Bonding of Atoms, Molecules, and Nanoparticles 413.2.4.1 Covalent Bonding 413.2.4.2 𝜋 Stacking 423.2.4.3 Ionic Bonding 433.2.4.4 Metallic Bonding 433.2.4.5 Permanent Dipole Bonding 433.2.4.6 Fluctuating Dipole Bonding 443.2.4.7 Philicity and Phobicity Interactions 443.3 Supramolecular Chemistry 453.4 Quantum Chemistry 454 Some Biology and Biochemistry Fundamentals Pertinent to Nanotechnology 494.1 Introduction 494.2 Some Pertinent Biology and Biochemistry Fundamentals 494.2.1 Cells, Biomolecules, and Machinery 494.2.2 The Molecules of Life 524.2.2.1 Carbohydrates 524.2.2.2 Lipids 554.2.2.3 Nucleic Acids 554.2.2.4 Proteins 574.3 Viruses 574.4 Microbes, Molecules, and Nanomaterials 574.5 Applying Biology to Nanotechnology Systems 585 Some Materials Science Fundamentals Pertinent to Nanotechnology 595.1 Introduction 595.2 Some Materials Fundamentals 595.2.1 Structure of a Solid 595.2.2 Quantum State of a Solid 615.2.2.1 Valence Electron states in a 3-D Solid 625.2.2.2 Vibration Modes in a 3-D Solid 685.2.2.3 Valence Electron States in 2-D Solids 695.2.2.4 Vibration Modes in 2-D Solids 725.2.2.5 Valence Electron States in 1-D Materials 725.2.2.6 Vibration Modes in 1-D Materials 735.2.2.7 Valence Electron States in 0-D Materials 765.2.2.8 Vibration Modes in 0-D Materials 775.2.2.9 Topological Materials 775.2.3 Spin and Orbital Angular Magnetic Moment in Solids 796 Properties of Nanotechnology Materials 816.1 Introduction 816.2 Material Properties and the Nanoscale 816.2.1 Electrical Conduction Properties of Nanomaterials 816.2.2 Optical Properties of Nanomaterials 846.2.3 Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials 886.2.4 Catalytic Properties 896.2.5 Thermal and Thermoelectric Properties 896.2.6 Mechanical Properties 927 An Overview of Nanotechnology Characterization Approaches 957.1 Introduction 957.2 Visible Range Light: Optical Microscopy 967.3 Probe Nanocharacterization Methods 987.3.1 Probe Microscopies 997.3.1.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 997.3.1.2 Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM) 1037.3.1.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) 1037.3.1.4 Kelvin Probe Force Microscope (KPFM) 1037.3.1.5 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 1047.3.2 Probe Spectroscopies 1047.3.2.1 Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy (STS) 1057.3.2.2 Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (TERS) 1057.4 Further E-M Radiation-Based Nanoscale Characterization Methods 1067.4.1 Nonvisible E-M Radiation Microscopies 1067.4.2 E-M Radiation-Driven Spectroscopies 1067.4.2.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 1067.4.2.2 Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) 1077.4.2.3 Photoelectron Spectroscopies 1087.4.2.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 1097.4.2.5 Raman Spectroscopies 1097.4.2.6 E-M Radiation Driven Mass Spectroscopy 1107.5 Electron Beam Nanocharacterization Methods 1107.5.1 Electron Beam Microscopies 1107.5.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy 1127.5.1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 1137.5.1.3 Scanning Auger Microscopy (SAM) 1137.5.2 Electron-Beam-Based Spectroscopies 1147.5.2.1 Characteristic X-ray Emission Spectroscopies 1147.5.2.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) 1147.5.2.3 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) 1157.5.2.4 Low- and High-Energy Electron Diffraction 1157.6 Ion Beam Nanocharacterization Techniques 1167.6.1 Ion Beam Microscopy 1167.6.1.1 Scanning Helium Ion Microscopy (SHIM) 1167.6.1.2 Atom Probe Field Ion Microscope (AP-FIM) 1177.6.2 Ion Beam Driven Spectroscopies 1187.6.2.1 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS) 1187.6.2.2 Low-Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS) 1187.7 Neutral Particle Beam Nanocharacterization Techniques 1198 Nanomaterial Preparation and Device Fabrication: Nonbiological Approaches 1218.1 Introduction 1218.2 Materials Preparation 1218.2.1 Physical PreparationMethods 1218.2.1.1 Milling Processes 1228.2.1.2 Physical Vapor Deposition Processes 1238.2.1.3 Physical Ion Beam Processing 1248.2.1.4 Langmuir–Blodgett Deposition 1258.2.1.5 Probe Deposition 1258.2.1.6 Electrospinning 1258.2.2 Chemical PreparationMethods 1278.2.2.1 Colloidal Chemistry 1278.2.2.2 Sol–Gel Processing 1298.2.2.3 Surfactant Self-Assemblies: Micelles and Microemulsions Processing 1298.2.2.4 Structured Polymers Processing 1308.2.2.5 Nanocomposite Formation 1328.2.2.6 Chemical Vapor Deposition Processes 1338.2.2.7 Epitaxial Growth Techniques 1358.2.2.8 Focused Ion Beam Deposition 1368.3 Fabrication 1368.3.1 Pattern Orchestration 1368.3.2 Etching 1388.3.3 Process Flow 1399 Nanomaterial Preparation and Device Fabrication: Biologically Based Approaches 1419.1 Introduction 1419.2 Biologically Based Materials Preparation 1419.2.1 Nanomaterial Biosynthesis Using Plant Substances 1419.2.2 Material Biosynthesis Using Eukaryotic Cells 1429.2.3 Material Biosynthesis Using Prokaryotic Cells 1429.2.4 Nanomaterial Biosynthesis Using Viruses 1439.2.5 Nanomaterials Biosynthesis Using Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins 1449.3 Biologically Based Fabrication – Bionanofabrication 1469.3.1 Bionanofabrication Using Cell Structures 1469.3.2 Bionanofabrication Using Viruses 1479.3.3 Bionanofabrication Using DNA 1479.3.4 Bionanofabrication Using Proteins 1489.3.5 Bionanofabrication Using Peptides 14910 Nanotechnology and Engineering: Computing, Communications, Imaging, and Sensing 15110.1 Introduction 15110.2 Nanoelectronics 15210.3 Spintronics 15310.4 Nanophotonics 15610.5 Nano-Optoelectronics 15610.6 Sensors 15811 Nanotechnology and Engineering: Materials, Energy Technologies, the Environment, Food and Agriculture, and Chemical Processes 15911.1 Introduction 15911.2 Some Basic Materials 15911.3 Textile Materials 16211.4 Energy Technology 16311.4.1 Super-Capacitor Energy Conversion 16411.4.2 Chemical Energy Conversion Technology 16511.4.2.1 Batteries 16511.4.2.2 Fuel Cells 16611.4.3 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 16711.4.4 Hydrogen Storage 16711.5 Environmental Engineering 16811.6 Food and Agriculture 16911.7 Chemical Processing 17012 Nanotechnology andMedicine: NP Targeting for Therapy and Imaging 17312.1 Introduction 17312.2 Some Current and Future Targeting Therapy and Imaging Opportunities 17512.2.1 NP Targeting for Cancer 17512.2.2 NP Targeting for Cardiovascular Diseases 18012.2.3 NP Targeting for Pulmonary Diseases or Infections 18412.2.4 NP Targeting for Neurological Disorders 18613 Nanotechnology andMedicine: Devices and Materials 18913.1 Introduction 18913.2 Some Current and Future Devices and Materials 18913.2.1 Devices 18913.2.1.1 Nanoelectronics and Nanosensors 19013.2.1.2 Nanomechanical Devices 19213.2.1.3 Lab-on-a-Chip Devices 19313.2.2 Materials 19413.2.2.1 Scaffolds for Tissue Growth 19413.2.2.2 Injectable and Implantable Materials 19513.2.2.3 Stents 19614 Nanotechnology: The Risks 19914.1 Introduction 19914.2 Key Factors Influencing Nanomaterial Toxicity 20114.3 NP Entry Routes and Some Possible Resulting Diseases 20314.3.1 Entry by Inhalation 20414.3.2 Entry by Contact 20514.3.3 Entry by Ingestion 20514.4 Nanoparticle Clearance Routes 20514.5 Nanoparticle Translocation through Biological Barriers 20714.6 Overall Effects of Nanoparticles 20814.7 Nanotoxicology 20914.7.1 In vivo Models 20914.7.1.1 Inhalation Approach 20914.7.1.2 “Nose – Only” Approach 20914.7.1.3 Intra-Tracheal Instillation Approach 21014.7.1.4 Feed/Gavage Approach 21014.7.1.5 Cutaneous Contact Approach 21014.7.1.6 Injection Approach 21014.7.2 In vitro Models 21014.8 Nanotoxicology Limitations 21115 Nanotechnology: Economic, Environmental, Societal, and Health Impact 21315.1 Introduction 21315.2 Nanotechnology and the Economy 21415.3 Nanotechnology and the Environment 21515.4 Nanotechnology and Society 21715.4.1 Public Engagement and Consumer Acceptance 21715.4.2 Nanotechnology and Ethics 21815.5 Nanotechnology and Health 21915.5.1 Regulatory Aspects 22015.5.2 Workplace and Consumer Protection 22015.5.3 Labeling Requirements 22215.6 Summary 222A Canonical Ensemble Statistics 223B Fermi–Dirac Statistics 227C Bose–Einstein Statistics 231References 233Index 267