Mohammad Younas, PhD, is Department Head of Chemical Engineering at the University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan. His research is focused on the modeling and simulation of membrane contactors.Mashallah Rezekazemi, PhD, is Professor of the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at the Shahrood University of Technology. His research is focused on membrane-based processes for energy-efficient desalination, CO2 capture, gas separation, and wastewater reuse.

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• Preface xvAbout the Authors xvii1 Introduction to Membrane Technology 1Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi1.1 Overview of Membrane Technology 11.2 Conventional Membrane Separation Processes 21.2.1 Microfiltration (MF) 21.2.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 21.2.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 31.2.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 31.2.5 Electrodialysis (ED) 41.2.6 Pervaporation (PV) 51.3 Molecular Weight Cutoff (MWCO) 81.4 Concentration Polarization 91.5 Membrane Fouling 101.6 Diafiltration 111.7 Historical Perspective 111.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Challenges 12References 142 Introduction to Membrane Contactor Technology 17Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi2.1 Membrane Contactor Separation Processes 172.1.1 Membrane Contactors 172.1.2 History and Background of Membrane Contactors 202.1.3 Types of Membrane Contactor Systems 212.1.3.1 Solid Porous Membrane as Medium of Contact in Membrane Contactors 212.1.3.2 Liquid Membrane Contactors 302.1.4 Membrane Contactor Integrated Systems 342.1.5 Potential of Membrane Contactor in Concentration, Temperature Polarization, Wetting, and Fouling of Membranes 352.2 Conclusion and Future Trends of Membrane Contactors 37References 383 Transport Theory in Membrane Contactor: Operational Principle 45Mohammad Younas, Waheed Ur Rehman, and Mashallah Rezakazemi3.1 Diffusional Mass and Heat Transfer Modeling 453.2 Membrane Characterization Models 463.2.1 Contact Angle and Liquid Entry Pressure 463.2.2 Liquid Entry Pressure (LEP) 493.2.3 Permporometry (Pore Size Distribution) 523.2.4 Electron Microscopy 523.3 Transport Models in Liquid–Liquid Contactor 523.3.1 Resistance in Series Model 553.3.1.1 Model Approach 563.3.1.2 Two Film Theory 563.3.1.3 Phase Equilibrium in Liquid–Liquid System 583.3.1.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient 593.4 Transport Model in Gas–Liquid Systems 603.4.1 Phase Equilibrium for Gas–Liquid System 613.4.2 Resistance in Series Model 613.5 Reactive Diffusion in Liquid-Side Boundary Layer 623.6 Mass Transfer Resistance Analysis 633.7 Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients 653.7.1 Correlation for Flow in Shell Side 663.7.2 Correlation for Flow in Tube Side 663.7.3 Correlation for Mass Transfer in Membrane Pores 683.8 Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficients 693.9 Interfacial Transfer Area 703.10 Axial Pressure Drop in Membrane Contactor Module 713.11 Dynamic Modeling 713.12 Transfer Units and Module Design Length 723.13 Numerical Modeling of Mass Transport in Membrane Contactor Modules 733.13.1 Mass Transfer in Shell Side 753.13.2 Mass Transfer Inside Fibers 773.13.3 Mass Transfer in Membrane Pores 783.13.4 Numerical Modeling Term in the Case of Membrane Wetting 793.14 Numerical Modeling of Heat Transport in Membrane Contactor Modules 813.14.1 Governing Equation in Cold and Hot Channels 823.14.2 Governing Equation Inside Membrane 823.15 Model Solution Algorithm 833.16 Conclusions and Perspectives 843.A Membrane Transport Theory: Operational Principle 843.A.1 Steady-State Resistance-in-Series Model Across Liquid–Liquid Contactor 843.A.1.1 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 843.A.1.2 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 853.A.1.3 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 853.A.1.4 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 853.A.1.5 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 863.A.1.6 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 863.A.1.7 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 863.A.1.8 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 873.A.1.9 Composite Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 873.A.1.10 Composite Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 873.A.1.11 Composite Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 873.A.1.12 Composite Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 883.A.2 Steady-State Resistance-in-Series Model Across Gas–Liquid Contactor 883.A.2.1 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 883.A.2.2 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 883.A.2.3 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 893.A.2.4 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 893.A.2.5 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 893.A.2.6 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 903.A.2.7 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 903.A.2.8 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 913.A.2.9 Composite Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 913.A.2.10 Composite Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 913.A.2.11 Composite Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 913.A.2.12 Composite Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 923.A.3 Dynamic Modeling Across the Storage Tank 92References 934 Module Design and Membrane Materials 99Nabilah Fazil, Sidra Saqib, Ahmad Mukhtar, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi4.1 Introduction 994.2 Membrane Module Design Configuration 1004.2.1 Plate-and-Frame Modules 1004.2.2 Spiral Wound Modules 1034.2.3 Tubular Modules 1044.2.4 Hollow Fiber Modules 1064.3 Membrane Contactor Module Housing 1114.4 Membrane Module Flow Configuration 1164.5 Membrane Materials 1164.5.1 Polymer Materials 1184.5.2 Inorganic Fillers 1254.6 Membrane and Membrane Module for Membrane Distillation (MD) and Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) 1264.7 Solvents Used in Membrane Synthesis 1284.8 Membrane Synthesis Techniques 1284.9 Conclusions 1304.10 Future Perspective 131References 1315 Mode of Operation in Membrane Contactors 143Waheed Ur Rehman, Zarrar Salahuddin, Sarah Farrukh, Muhammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD) 1435.1.1 Basic Principles of MD Process 1435.1.2 MD Configurations 1445.1.3 Overall Driving Force 1455.1.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 1475.1.4.1 Feed-Side Mass Transfer 1485.1.4.2 Membrane Mass Transfer 1505.1.4.3 Strip-Side Mass Transfer 1515.1.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, Θv 1525.1.5.1 DCMD 1525.1.5.2 Feed–Side and Strip–Side Heat Transfer 1535.1.5.3 Membrane Heat Transfer 1535.1.6 AGMD 1545.1.6.1 SGMD 1565.1.7 VMD 1575.1.8 Membranes for MD Process 1575.1.9 Pros and Cons of MD Process 1585.1.10 Future Prospects of MD Process 1615.2 Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) 1615.2.1 Basic Principles of OMD Process 1615.2.2 Overall Mass Transfer 1635.2.2.1 Mass Transfer Across Feed Boundary Layer 1635.2.2.2 Mass Transfer Across Stripper Boundary Layer 1635.2.2.3 Mass Transfer Across Membrane 1645.2.2.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Feed and Stripper Side 1645.2.2.5 Mass Transfer Coefficient Across Membrane 1645.2.3 Stripping Solutions for OMD 1655.2.4 Membranes for OMD Process 1665.2.5 Pros and Cons of OMD Process 1665.3 Forward Osmosis 1675.3.1 Basic Principles of FO Process 1675.3.2 Calculation of the Osmotic Pressures 1675.3.3 Reverse Solute Flux in FO 1705.3.4 Membranes for FO Process 1705.3.5 Draw Solutes for FO Process 1715.3.6 Pros and Cons of FO Process 1725.4 Pressure-Retarded Osmosis 1725.4.1 Basic Principles of PRO Process 1725.4.2 Membranes for PRO Process 1755.4.3 Pros and Cons of PRO Process 1765.5 Conclusions 176References 1766 Applications of Membrane Contactor Technology in Wastewater Treatment 185Ayesha Rehman, Xianhui Li, Sarah Farrukh, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi6.1 Introduction 1856.2 Common Toxic Substances in Wastewater 1876.2.1 Phenols 1876.2.2 Heavy Metals 1886.2.3 Ammonia 1886.2.4 Hydrogen Sulfide 1886.2.5 Carbon Dioxide 1886.2.6 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 1886.2.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1896.2.8 Nitrobenzene 1896.3 Environmental Risks of Wastewater 1896.4 Membrane Technology for Wastewater Treatment 1906.5 Membrane Contactor Technology for Removal of Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 1936.6 Removal of Inorganic Contaminants from Wastewater 2006.7 Polymer-Based Adsorption Membranes 2026.8 Ion-Exchange Nanoporous Membrane 2046.9 Micellar-Enhanced Ultrafiltration Membrane 2046.10 Membrane Materials for Water Treatment 2056.11 Membrane Materials for Microfiltration (MF) and Ultrafiltration (UF) 2066.12 Membrane Materials for Nanofiltration (NF) 2066.13 Membrane Materials for Reverse Osmosis (RO) 2076.14 Membrane Materials for Forward Osmosis (FO) 2076.15 Challenges in Membrane Materials to Prevent Fouling 2086.16 Conclusions and Perspectives 209References 2107 Applications of Membrane Contactors in Food Industry 219Waheed Ur Rehman, Bazla Sarwar, Sidra Saqib, Ahmad Mukhtar, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi7.1 Introduction 2197.2 Membrane Distillation (MD) Applications in Food Industry 2197.2.1 MD in the Concentration of Apple Juice 2217.2.2 MD in the Concentration of Orange Juice 2227.2.3 MD in the Concentration of Milk 2227.2.4 MD in the Treatment of Saline Dairy Waste Water 2237.2.5 MD in the Concentration of Muscadine Grape Pomace 2247.2.6 MD in the Recovery of Phenols from Olive Mill Wastewater 2257.2.7 MD in the Concentration of Sucrose Solution 2257.2.8 Effect of Operating Parameters on MD Flux 2257.3 Application of Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) in Food Industry 2277.3.1 Effect of Operating Conditions on OMD Water Flux 2287.3.2 OMD in the Concentration of Apple Juice 2317.3.3 OMD in the Concentration of Grape Juice 2327.3.4 OMD in the Concentration of Pomegranate Juice 2337.3.5 OMD in the Concentration of Orange Juice 2357.3.6 OMD in the Concentration of Cranberry and Noni Juices 2357.3.7 OMD in the Concentration of Kiwi and Pineapple Juices 2367.3.8 OMD in the Concentration of Tea Extracts 2367.3.9 Dealcoholization of Beer and Wine 2377.4 Coupled Operation of Osmotic Distillation and Membrane Distillation 2387.5 Conclusions 2397.6 Future Perspectives 239References 2408 Applications of Membrane Contactor Technology for Pre-combustion Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capture 247Zarrar Salahuddin, Sarah Farrukh, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi8.1 Introduction 2478.2 Why Pre-combustion Carbon Capture? 2508.3 Membranes for Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 2508.3.1 Hydrogen (H2)-Selective Membranes 2508.3.2 CO2 -Selective Membranes 2558.4 Advantages and Limitations of Pre-combustion Carbon Capture Using Membrane Technology 2628.5 Applications of Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 2638.6 Current Trends and Future Prospects 2638.7 Concluding and Future Directions 269References 2699 Application of Membrane Contactor Technology for Post-combustion Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capture 281Muhammad B. Wazir, Muhammad Daud, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi9.1 Introduction 2819.2 Membranes for Post-combustion CO2 Capture 2829.2.1 Membrane Types 2829.2.2 Membrane Modules 2859.3 Experimental Membrane Materials for Post-combustion CO2 Sequestration 2859.4 Commercial Membranes for Post-combustion CO2 Separation 2889.5 Cost of Post-combustion CO2 Capture in Membrane Contactors 2899.6 Absorbents for Post-combustion CO2 Separation 2919.6.1 Amine-Based Absorbents 2919.6.2 Ammonia 2939.6.3 Salt Solutions 2949.6.4 Ionic Liquids 2959.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective 295References 29610 Market Prospects of Membrane Contactors 305Zahra Pezeshki, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi10.1 Membrane Contactor Market Dynamics 30510.2 Market Overview 30610.3 Membrane Contactor Market by Application 31310.3.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Market 31310.3.2 Food Processing Market 31510.3.3 Gas Separation Market 31810.3.4 Carbon Capture Market 32110.4 Membrane Contactor Market, by Membrane 32110.5 Membrane Contactor Market, by Region 32510.6 Recent Developments of Membrane Contactor Companies 32810.6.1 3M Company 32810.6.2 Cobetter Filtration Equipment Pvt. Ltd. 32910.6.3 Eurowater 32910.6.4 JU.CLA.S Srl 32910.6.5 Veolia Environnement SA 32910.6.6 PTI Pacific Pty. Ltd. 33010.6.7 Kværner ASA 33010.6.8 Lenntech B.V. 33010.6.9 Pure Water Group 33010.6.10 TNO Company 33010.6.11 Euwa H. H. Eumann GmbH (Euwa) 33010.6.12 Hydro-Elektrik GmbH 33110.6.13 KH TEC GmbH 33110.6.14 Romfil GmbH 33110.7 Future Directions 33110.8 Conclusion 332References 33211 Conclusions and Perspective 337Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi11.1 Future Directions 340Index 342