Nanowire Energy Storage Devices

Liqiang Mai is Chair Professor of materials science and engineering at Wuhan University of Technology (WUT). He is Changjiang Scholar Professor and Distinguished Young Scholar of the National Science Fund of China. He received his PhD degree from WUT in 2004. He worked as an advanced research scholar at Harvard University from 2008 to 2011 and Prof. Peidong Yang’s group at the University of California, Berkeley, in 2017.

• Preface xi1 Nanowire Energy Storage Devices: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 One-Dimensional Nanomaterials 11.1.1.1 Nanorods 31.1.1.2 Carbon Nanofibers 31.1.1.3 Nanotubes 31.1.1.4 Nanobelts 51.1.1.5 Nanocables 61.1.2 Energy Storage Science and Technology 61.1.2.1 Mechanical Energy Storage 71.1.2.2 Electromagnetic Energy Storage 91.1.2.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage 91.1.3 Overview of Nanowire Energy Storage Materials and Devices 131.1.3.1 Si Nanowires 151.1.3.2 ZnO Nanowires 171.1.3.3 Single Nanowire Electrochemical Energy Storage Device 18References 192 Fundamentals of Nanowire Energy Storage 272.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Nanowires 272.1.1 Electronic Structure 272.1.2 Thermal Properties 292.1.2.1 Melting Point 292.1.2.2 Thermal Conduction 302.1.3 Mechanical Properties 312.1.4 Adsorption and Surface Activity 322.1.4.1 Adsorption 332.1.4.2 Surface Activity 332.2 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Nanowires Electrode Materials 342.2.1 Thermodynamics 342.2.2 Kinetics 342.3 Basic Performance Parameters of Nanowires Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices 352.3.1 Electromotive Force 362.3.2 Operating Voltage 362.3.3 Capacity and Specific Capacity 362.3.4 Energy and Specific Energy 372.3.5 Current Density and Charge–Discharge Rate 372.3.6 Power and Specific Power 382.3.7 Coulombic Efficiency 382.3.8 Cycle Life 382.4 Interfacial Properties of Nanowires Electrode Materials 382.4.1 Interface Between Nanowire Electrode Materials and Electrolytes 382.4.2 Heterogeneous Interfaces in Nanowire Electrode Materials 402.5 Optimization Mechanism of Electrochemical Properties of Nanowires Electrode Materials 422.5.1 Mechanism of Electron/Ion Bicontinuous Transport 422.5.2 Self-Buffering Mechanism 442.6 Theoretical Calculation of Nanowires Electrode Materials 442.7 Summary and Outlook 48References 493 Design and Synthesis of Nanowires 513.1 Conventional Nanowires 513.1.1 Wet Chemical Methods 513.1.1.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Method 523.1.1.2 Sol–Gel Method 533.1.1.3 Coprecipitation Method 543.1.1.4 Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis Method 553.1.1.5 Electrospinning Method 553.1.2 Dry Chemical Method 573.1.2.1 High-Temperature Solid-State Method 573.1.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method 583.1.3 Physical Method 593.2 Porous Nanowires 603.2.1 Template Method 603.2.1.1 Template by Nanoconfinement 603.2.1.2 Template by Orientation Induction 623.2.2 Self-Assembly Method 633.2.3 Chemical Etching Method 643.3 Hierarchical Nanowires 653.3.1 Self-Assembly Method 653.3.2 Secondary Nucleation Growth Method 683.4 Heterogeneous Nanowires 693.4.1 Heterogeneous Nucleation 693.4.2 Secondary Modification 713.5 Hollow Nanowires 733.5.1 Wet Chemical Method 733.5.2 Template Method 733.5.3 Gradient Electrospinning 763.6 Nanowire Arrays 793.6.1 Template Method 793.6.2 Wet Chemical Method 813.6.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 833.7 Summary and Outlook 86References 884 Nanowires for In Situ Characterization 954.1 In Situ Electron Microscopy Characterization 954.1.1 In Situ Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Characterization 954.1.2 In Situ Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) Characterization 974.2 In Situ Spectroscopy Characterization 1014.2.1 In Situ X-ray Diffraction 1014.2.2 In Situ Raman Spectroscopy 1064.2.3 In Situ X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 1084.2.4 In Situ XAS Characterization 1084.3 In Situ Characterization of Nanowire Devices 1114.3.1 Nanowire Device 1114.3.2 Nanowire Device Characterization Example 1114.4 Other In Situ Characterization 1154.4.1 In Situ Atomic Force Microscopy Characterization 1154.4.2 In Situ Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1174.4.3 In Situ Neutron Diffraction 1194.4.4 In Situ Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry 1214.5 Summary and Outlook 123References 1245 Nanowires for Lithium-ion Batteries 1315.1 Electrochemistry, Advantages, and Issues of LIBs Batteries 1315.1.1 History of Lithium-ion Batteries 1315.1.2 Electrochemistry of Lithium-ion Batteries 1325.1.2.1 Theoretical Operation Potential 1335.1.2.2 Theoretical Specific Capacity of Electrode Materials and Cells 1335.1.2.3 Theoretical Specific Energy Density of an Electrochemical Cell 1345.1.3 Key Materials for Lithium-ion Batteries 1345.1.3.1 Cathode 1345.1.3.2 Anode 1355.1.3.3 Electrolyte 1355.1.3.4 Separator 1365.1.4 Advantages and Issues of Lithium-ion Batteries 1375.2 Unique Characteristic of Nanowires for LIBs 1385.2.1 Enhancing the Diffusion Dynamics of Carriers 1385.2.2 Enhancing Structural Stability of Materials 1385.2.3 Befitting the In Situ Characterization of Electrochemical Process 1395.2.4 Enabling the Construction of Flexible Devices 1395.3 Nanowires as Anodes in LIBs 1395.3.1 Alloy-Type Anode Materials (Si, Ge, and Sn) 1395.3.1.1 Lithium Storage in Si Nanowires 1395.3.1.2 Lithium Storage in Ge Nanowires 1425.3.1.3 Lithium Storage in Sn Nanowires 1455.3.2 Metal Oxide Nanowires 1465.3.3 Carbonaceous Anode Materials 1485.4 Nanowires as Cathodes in LIBs 1515.4.1 Transition Metal Oxides 1515.4.2 Vanadium Oxide Nanowires 1535.4.3 Iron Compounds Including Oxides and Phosphates 1575.5 Nanowires-Based Separators in LIBs 1605.6 Nanowires-Based Solid-State Electrolytes in LIBs 1635.7 Nanowires-Based Electrodes for Flexible LIBs 1685.8 Summary and Outlook 174References 1756 Nanowires for Sodium-ion Batteries 1856.1 Advantages and Challenges of Sodium-ion Batteries 1856.1.1 Development of Sodium-ion Batteries 1856.1.2 Characteristic of Sodium-ion Batteries 1866.1.2.1 The Working Principle of Sodium-ion Battery 1866.1.2.2 Advantages of Sodium-ion Batteries 1866.1.3 Key Materials for Sodium-ion Batteries 1876.1.3.1 Cathode 1886.1.3.2 Anode 1886.1.3.3 Electrolyte 1896.1.3.4 Separator 1896.1.4 Challenges for Sodium-ion Batteries 1916.2 Nanowires as Cathodes in Sodium-ion Batteries 1936.2.1 Layered Oxide Nanowires 1936.2.2 Tunnel-type Oxide Nanowires 1956.2.3 Polyanionic Compound Nanowires 1966.3 Nanowires as Anodes in Sodium-ion Batteries 2006.3.1 Carbonaceous Materials and Polyanionic Compounds 2006.3.1.1 Graphitized Carbon Materials 2006.3.1.2 Amorphous Carbon Materials 2016.3.1.3 Carbon Nanomaterials 2016.3.2 Polyanionic Compounds 2036.3.3 Metals and Metal Oxides 2066.3.3.1 Metal Nanowires 2066.3.3.2 Transition Metal Oxide Nanowires 2076.3.4 Metal Sulfides 2156.3.4.1 Molybdenum Sulfide and Its Composites 2166.3.4.2 Tungsten Sulfide and Its Composites 2166.3.4.3 Stannic Sulfide and Its Composites 2186.3.4.4 Nickel Sulfide, Ferrous Sulfide and Their Composites 2186.4 Summary 220References 2207 Application of Nanowire Materials in Metal-Chalcogenide Battery 2297.1 Lithium–Sulfur Battery 2307.1.1 Sulfur–Carbon Nanowire Composite Cathode Materials 2317.1.2 Conductive Polymer Nanowire/Sulfur Composite Cathode Materials 2367.1.3 Metal Compound Nanowires/Sulfur Composite Cathode Materials 2377.2 Sodium–Sulfur Battery and Magnesium–Sulfur Battery 2437.2.1 Sodium–Sulfur Battery 2437.2.2 Magnesium–Sulfur Battery 2477.3 Lithium–Selenium Battery 2497.3.1 Reaction Mechanism of Lithium–Selenium Battery 2507.3.2 Selenium-Based Cathode Materials 2517.3.3 Existing Problems and Possible Solutions 2567.4 Summary and Outlook 257References 2588 Application of Nanowires in Supercapacitors 2638.1 Nanowire Electrode Material for Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitor 2658.1.1 The Application of Carbon Nanotubes in EDLCs 2668.1.2 The Application of Carbon Nanofibers in EDLCs 2678.2 Nanowire Electrode Materials for Pseudocapacitive Supercapacitors 2698.2.1 Metal Oxide Nanowire Electrode Materials 2698.2.2 Conducting Polymer Nanowire Electrode Materials 2718.3 Nanowire Electrode Materials of Hybrid Supercapacitors 2728.3.1 Hybrid Supercapacitor Based on Aqueous Electrolyte 2748.3.1.1 Carbon/Metal Oxide 2748.3.1.2 Carbon/Conductive Nanowire Polymer 2768.3.2 Other Electrolyte System Hybrid Supercapacitors 2778.3.2.1 Organic Electrolyte System 2778.3.2.2 Redox-Active Electrolyte System 2788.3.3 Solid Electrolyte or Quasi-Solid-State Hybrid Supercapacitor 2798.4 Summary and Outlook 279References 2809 Nanowires for Multivalent-ion Batteries 2859.1 Nanowires for Magnesium-Ion Battery 2859.1.1 Vanadium-Based Nanowires for MIBs 2869.1.2 Manganese-Based Nanowires for MIBs 2899.1.3 Other Nanowires for MIBs 2909.2 Nanowires for Calcium-Ion Batteries 2929.3 Nanowires for Zinc-Ion Batteries 2939.3.1 Vanadium-Based Nanowires for ZIBs 2949.3.2 Manganese-Based Nanowires for ZIBs 2959.4 Nanowires for Aluminum Ion Batteries 2969.5 Summary and Outlook 298References 29910 Conclusion and Outlook 30510.1 Structure Design and Performance Optimization of 1D Nanomaterials 30510.2 Advanced Characterization Methods for 1D Nanomaterials 30810.3 Applications and Challenges of Nanowire Energy Storage Devices 31410.3.1 Application of Nanowire Structures in Lithium-ion Batteries 31410.3.2 Applications of Nanowire Structures in Na-ion Battery 31510.3.3 Applications of Nanowire Structures in Other Monovalent-ion Batteries 31610.3.4 Application of Nanowires in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 31610.3.5 Application of 1D Nanomaterials in Supercapacitors 31810.3.6 Nanowires for Other Energy Storage Devices 31910.3.6.1 Metal Air Batteries 31910.3.6.2 Multivalent-ion Battery 32010.3.6.3 Metal Sulfur Batteries 320References 322Index 327