Wei Hu, PhD, is Associate Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), China. His research interests include polymer composite solid electrolyte, nanomaterials, and intelligent responsive materials. He is currently on the editorial board of Battery Energy.

• Preface xiii1 Application of Organic Functional Additives in Batteries 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Fluorinated Additives 21.2.1 Functions of Fluorinated Additives 21.2.1.1 Improvement of Safety Performance 21.2.1.2 SEI-Forming Additives 21.2.1.3 High Oxidation Stability 41.2.1.4 Promotion of the Formation of Anion-Rich Solvation Structure 51.2.1.5 Reduction of Desolvation Barrier 61.2.2 Synergies of Fluoroethylene Carbonate with Other Compounds 61.2.2.1 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Other Fluorinated Electrolytes 61.2.2.2 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Lewis Base 71.2.2.3 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Glyme 71.2.3 Drawbacks of Fluoroethylene Carbonate 81.2.3.1 Generation of HF Gas 81.2.3.2 Increase of Impedance and Loss of Impedance 81.2.3.3 Incompatibility with Other Electrodes 81.2.3.4 Recycling Issues 91.3 Nitro Additive 91.3.1 Functions of Nitro (NO − 3) 91.3.1.1 Participation in Solvation and Desolvation Structures 91.3.1.2 Formation of Inorganic-Rich SEI 101.3.1.3 CEI-Forming Additives 121.3.1.4 Functions in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 131.3.1.5 Stabilization of Water Molecules 141.3.2 Organic Nitro Additive 141.3.2.1 Complex Nitrate-Based Additives 141.3.2.2 Complex Nitro-Based Additives 151.3.3 Drawbacks and Solutions of Nitro Additives 151.3.3.1 Low Solubility 151.3.3.2 Sacrificial Additives 171.3.3.3 High Decomposition Activation Energy of LiNO 3 181.4 Nitrile Additives 191.4.1 Functions of Nitrile Additives 191.4.1.1 Plasticization 191.4.1.2 Facilitation of Ion Transport 201.4.1.3 Promotion of Lithium Salt Dissolution 221.4.1.4 Widening of the Electrochemical Window 221.4.1.5 Inhibiting the Decomposition of the Electrolyte 221.4.1.6 Low Flammability 221.4.1.7 Improvement of Polymer Flexibility 231.4.1.8 Modification of the Cathode Interface 231.4.1.9 Involvement in the Solvation Structure of Zn 2+ 241.4.1.10 Weakening of Ionic Association 241.4.1.11 Contribution to the Formation of SEI 241.4.2 Compatibility Analysis of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.2.1 Incompatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.3 Other Drawbacks of Nitrile Additives 281.4.3.1 Low Mechanical Strength 281.4.3.2 Prone to Polymerization 281.4.3.3 Crystallinity 281.5 Phosphate Ester Additives 291.5.1 Functions of Phosphate Ester Additives 291.5.1.1 Flame Retardant 291.5.1.2 Stabilization of Cathodes and Anodes 301.5.1.3 Involvement in Solvation Structure Regulation 311.5.2 Drawbacks of Phosphate Ester 321.5.2.1 Incompatibility with Anodes 321.5.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Phosphate Ester and Lithium Metal 321.6 Sulfate Ester Additives 341.6.1 Functions of Sulfate Ester Additives 341.6.1.1 SEI-Forming Additives 341.6.1.2 CEI-Forming Additives 361.7 Conclusion and Outlook 39References 402 Application of Biopolymers in Batteries 512.1 Introduction 512.2 Overview of Biopolymers 532.2.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) 532.2.2 Chitosan (CS) 542.2.3 Sodium Alginate (SA) 562.2.4 Lignin 572.2.5 Gum Arabic (GA) 572.2.6 Guar Gum (GG) 592.2.7 Xanthan Gum (XG) 592.2.8 Starch 602.2.9 Gelatin 612.2.10 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 622.2.11 Cellulose (CLS) 632.2.12 Trehalose (THL) 642.2.13 Citrulline (Cit) 642.2.14 Pectin 652.2.15 Carrageenan 662.3 Application of Biopolymers in Binders 662.3.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose 672.3.2 Chitosan 682.3.3 Sodium Alginate 702.3.4 Lignin 722.3.5 Gum Arabic 742.3.6 Guar Gum and Xanthan Gum 752.3.7 Starch 752.3.8 Gelatin 762.3.9 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 782.4 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolytes 792.4.1 Cellulose 792.4.2 Chitosan 812.4.3 Lignin 822.4.4 Gelatin 852.5 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolyte Additives 872.5.1 Cellulose 882.5.2 Trehalose 882.5.3 Citrulline 892.5.4 Pectin 902.6 Application of Biopolymers in Separators 902.6.1 Cellulose 912.6.2 Starch 942.6.3 Carrageenan 952.7 Application of Biopolymers in Anode Functional Layers 952.7.1 Cellulose 962.7.2 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate 962.8 Conclusion and Outlook 98References 1003A Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Carbon-chain Polymers 1073A.1 Introduction 1073A.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 1073A.2.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) 1083A.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 1093A.2.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) 1103A.2.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 1113A.2.5 Polyacrylics (PA) 1113A.2.6 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 1123A.2.7 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) 1133A.2.8 Polyolefin (PO) 1143A.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 1153A.3.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1153A.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene 1173A.3.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber 1183A.3.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1193A.3.5 Polyacrylics 1223A.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 1243A.4.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1253A.4.2 Polyacrylonitrile 1293A.4.3 Polyacrylics 1313A.4.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1333A.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 1353A.5.1 Polyolefin 1363A.5.2 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1383A.5.3 Polyacrylonitrile 1393A.5.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1403A.6 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Anodes 1423A.6.1 Polyacrylonitrile 1423A.6.2 Polyacrylics 1433A.7 Conclusions and Outlook 143References 1453B Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Hetero-chain Polymers 1553B.1 Introduction 1553B.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 1553B.2.1 Epoxy Resin (EPR) 1563B.2.2 Polyethylenimine (PEI) 1573B.2.3 Polyurethane (PU) 1583B.2.4 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) 1583B.2.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 1593B.2.6 Polyimide (PI) 1603B.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 1613B.3.1 Epoxy Resin 1613B.3.2 Polyethylenimine 1623B.3.3 Polyurethane 1643B.3.4 Polyimide 1663B.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 1673B.4.1 Epoxy Resin 1673B.4.2 Polyurethane 1703B.4.3 Polyethylene Oxide 1733B.4.4 Polyimide 1763B.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 1783B.5.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate 1783B.5.2 Polyimide 1793B.6 Conclusions and Outlook 180References 1824 Application of Nontraditional Organic Ionic Conductors in Batteries 1894.1 Ionic Liquids 1894.1.1 Introduction of Ionic Liquids 1894.1.2 Development of Ionic Liquids 1904.1.3 Catalog of Ionic Liquids 1914.1.4 Advantages of Ionic Liquids for Batteries 1934.1.5 Synthesis and Characterization Method of Ionic Liquids 1934.1.6 Application of Ionic Liquids 1944.2 Application of ILs in Batteries 1964.2.1 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 1984.2.2 Ionic Liquid/Organic Solvent Electrolyte 2064.2.3 Organic–Inorganic Composite Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 2104.3 Single-Ion Conductive 2154.3.1 Introduction of Single-Ion Conductive 2154.3.2 Catalog of Single-Ion Conductive 2164.4 Application of Single-Ion Conductive in Batteries 2174.4.1 Organic Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 2174.4.2 Organic–Inorganic Composite Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 2254.5 Conclusions and Outlook 228References 2305 Application of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 2395.1 Introduction 2395.1.1 The Need for Battery Innovation 2395.1.2 Overview of Self-Healing Materials 2395.1.3 Benefits of Self-Healing Technologies in Batteries 2405.1.4 Challenges in Scaling and Commercializing Self-Healing Materials 2425.2 Types of Self-Healing Materials for Battery Applications 2435.2.1 Physically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 2435.2.2 Chemically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 2435.2.3 Composite Self-Healing Materials with Multiple Repair Mechanisms 2445.3 Applications of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 2445.3.1 Gel Polymer Electrolytes 2445.3.2 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 2565.3.3 Composite Electrolytes 2725.3.4 Electrode Binders 2755.4 Conclusions and Outlook 281References 2826 Application of Low-Dimensional Materials in Batteries 2876.1 Introduction 2876.1.1 Lithium-Metal Batteries 2876.1.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials 2886.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Cathode Materials 2896.2.1 Composite Methods for Low-Dimensional Cathode Materials 2906.2.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 2936.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Materials 2936.2.2.2 Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Materials 2976.2.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 2996.2.3.1 Graphene Materials 2996.2.3.2 MXene Materials 3046.3 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials in Separators 3096.3.1 Zero-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3106.3.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3126.3.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3156.4 Low-Dimensional Composite Current Collectors 3206.4.1 Design of Current Collector 3206.4.2 Nanocomposite Current Collectors 3226.5 Low-Dimensional Composite Anode Materials 3246.5.1 Formation of SEI and Failure Mechanism 3246.5.2 Nanocomposite Lithium Metal Anodes 3256.5.3 Low-Dimensional Materials in 3D-Printing Anodes 3286.6 Conclusion and Outlook 329References 3307 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 3397.1 Introduction 3397.1.1 Overview of Energy Demand and Battery Technologies 3397.1.2 Limitations of Traditional Battery Material 3397.1.3 Potential of Porous Organic Framework Materials for Energy Storage 3407.2 Types of Porous Organic Framework Materials 3417.2.1 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 3417.2.1.1 Types of MOFs 3427.2.2 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 3427.2.2.1 Types of COFs 3437.2.3 Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Frameworks (HOFs) 3437.2.3.1 Types of HOF 3437.3 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 3457.3.1 Applications in Electrode Materials 3457.3.1.1 MOF as Electrode Materials 3457.3.1.2 COF as Electrode Materials 3527.3.1.3 HOF as Electrode Materials 3567.3.2 Applications in Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3597.3.2.1 MOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3597.3.2.2 COF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3647.3.2.3 HOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3677.3.3 Applications in Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3687.3.3.1 MOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3687.3.3.2 COF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3717.3.3.3 HOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3737.3.4 Applications in Battery Separators 3747.3.4.1 MOF as Battery Separator 3747.3.4.2 COF as Battery Separator 3787.3.4.3 HOF as Battery Separator 3807.4 Conclusion and Outlook 3817.4.1 Conclusion 3817.4.2 Outlook 382References 383Index 389

Wei Hu, PhD, is Associate Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), China. His research interests include polymer composite solid electrolyte, nanomaterials, and intelligent responsive materials. He is currently on the editorial board of Battery Energy.

• Preface xiii1 Application of Organic Functional Additives in Batteries 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Fluorinated Additives 21.2.1 Functions of Fluorinated Additives 21.2.1.1 Improvement of Safety Performance 21.2.1.2 SEI-Forming Additives 21.2.1.3 High Oxidation Stability 41.2.1.4 Promotion of the Formation of Anion-Rich Solvation Structure 51.2.1.5 Reduction of Desolvation Barrier 61.2.2 Synergies of Fluoroethylene Carbonate with Other Compounds 61.2.2.1 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Other Fluorinated Electrolytes 61.2.2.2 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Lewis Base 71.2.2.3 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Glyme 71.2.3 Drawbacks of Fluoroethylene Carbonate 81.2.3.1 Generation of HF Gas 81.2.3.2 Increase of Impedance and Loss of Impedance 81.2.3.3 Incompatibility with Other Electrodes 81.2.3.4 Recycling Issues 91.3 Nitro Additive 91.3.1 Functions of Nitro (NO − 3) 91.3.1.1 Participation in Solvation and Desolvation Structures 91.3.1.2 Formation of Inorganic-Rich SEI 101.3.1.3 CEI-Forming Additives 121.3.1.4 Functions in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 131.3.1.5 Stabilization of Water Molecules 141.3.2 Organic Nitro Additive 141.3.2.1 Complex Nitrate-Based Additives 141.3.2.2 Complex Nitro-Based Additives 151.3.3 Drawbacks and Solutions of Nitro Additives 151.3.3.1 Low Solubility 151.3.3.2 Sacrificial Additives 171.3.3.3 High Decomposition Activation Energy of LiNO 3 181.4 Nitrile Additives 191.4.1 Functions of Nitrile Additives 191.4.1.1 Plasticization 191.4.1.2 Facilitation of Ion Transport 201.4.1.3 Promotion of Lithium Salt Dissolution 221.4.1.4 Widening of the Electrochemical Window 221.4.1.5 Inhibiting the Decomposition of the Electrolyte 221.4.1.6 Low Flammability 221.4.1.7 Improvement of Polymer Flexibility 231.4.1.8 Modification of the Cathode Interface 231.4.1.9 Involvement in the Solvation Structure of Zn 2+ 241.4.1.10 Weakening of Ionic Association 241.4.1.11 Contribution to the Formation of SEI 241.4.2 Compatibility Analysis of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.2.1 Incompatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.3 Other Drawbacks of Nitrile Additives 281.4.3.1 Low Mechanical Strength 281.4.3.2 Prone to Polymerization 281.4.3.3 Crystallinity 281.5 Phosphate Ester Additives 291.5.1 Functions of Phosphate Ester Additives 291.5.1.1 Flame Retardant 291.5.1.2 Stabilization of Cathodes and Anodes 301.5.1.3 Involvement in Solvation Structure Regulation 311.5.2 Drawbacks of Phosphate Ester 321.5.2.1 Incompatibility with Anodes 321.5.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Phosphate Ester and Lithium Metal 321.6 Sulfate Ester Additives 341.6.1 Functions of Sulfate Ester Additives 341.6.1.1 SEI-Forming Additives 341.6.1.2 CEI-Forming Additives 361.7 Conclusion and Outlook 39References 402 Application of Biopolymers in Batteries 512.1 Introduction 512.2 Overview of Biopolymers 532.2.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) 532.2.2 Chitosan (CS) 542.2.3 Sodium Alginate (SA) 562.2.4 Lignin 572.2.5 Gum Arabic (GA) 572.2.6 Guar Gum (GG) 592.2.7 Xanthan Gum (XG) 592.2.8 Starch 602.2.9 Gelatin 612.2.10 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 622.2.11 Cellulose (CLS) 632.2.12 Trehalose (THL) 642.2.13 Citrulline (Cit) 642.2.14 Pectin 652.2.15 Carrageenan 662.3 Application of Biopolymers in Binders 662.3.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose 672.3.2 Chitosan 682.3.3 Sodium Alginate 702.3.4 Lignin 722.3.5 Gum Arabic 742.3.6 Guar Gum and Xanthan Gum 752.3.7 Starch 752.3.8 Gelatin 762.3.9 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 782.4 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolytes 792.4.1 Cellulose 792.4.2 Chitosan 812.4.3 Lignin 822.4.4 Gelatin 852.5 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolyte Additives 872.5.1 Cellulose 882.5.2 Trehalose 882.5.3 Citrulline 892.5.4 Pectin 902.6 Application of Biopolymers in Separators 902.6.1 Cellulose 912.6.2 Starch 942.6.3 Carrageenan 952.7 Application of Biopolymers in Anode Functional Layers 952.7.1 Cellulose 962.7.2 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate 962.8 Conclusion and Outlook 98References 1003A Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Carbon-chain Polymers 1073A.1 Introduction 1073A.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 1073A.2.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) 1083A.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 1093A.2.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) 1103A.2.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 1113A.2.5 Polyacrylics (PA) 1113A.2.6 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 1123A.2.7 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) 1133A.2.8 Polyolefin (PO) 1143A.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 1153A.3.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1153A.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene 1173A.3.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber 1183A.3.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1193A.3.5 Polyacrylics 1223A.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 1243A.4.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1253A.4.2 Polyacrylonitrile 1293A.4.3 Polyacrylics 1313A.4.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1333A.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 1353A.5.1 Polyolefin 1363A.5.2 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1383A.5.3 Polyacrylonitrile 1393A.5.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1403A.6 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Anodes 1423A.6.1 Polyacrylonitrile 1423A.6.2 Polyacrylics 1433A.7 Conclusions and Outlook 143References 1453B Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Hetero-chain Polymers 1553B.1 Introduction 1553B.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 1553B.2.1 Epoxy Resin (EPR) 1563B.2.2 Polyethylenimine (PEI) 1573B.2.3 Polyurethane (PU) 1583B.2.4 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) 1583B.2.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 1593B.2.6 Polyimide (PI) 1603B.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 1613B.3.1 Epoxy Resin 1613B.3.2 Polyethylenimine 1623B.3.3 Polyurethane 1643B.3.4 Polyimide 1663B.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 1673B.4.1 Epoxy Resin 1673B.4.2 Polyurethane 1703B.4.3 Polyethylene Oxide 1733B.4.4 Polyimide 1763B.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 1783B.5.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate 1783B.5.2 Polyimide 1793B.6 Conclusions and Outlook 180References 1824 Application of Nontraditional Organic Ionic Conductors in Batteries 1894.1 Ionic Liquids 1894.1.1 Introduction of Ionic Liquids 1894.1.2 Development of Ionic Liquids 1904.1.3 Catalog of Ionic Liquids 1914.1.4 Advantages of Ionic Liquids for Batteries 1934.1.5 Synthesis and Characterization Method of Ionic Liquids 1934.1.6 Application of Ionic Liquids 1944.2 Application of ILs in Batteries 1964.2.1 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 1984.2.2 Ionic Liquid/Organic Solvent Electrolyte 2064.2.3 Organic–Inorganic Composite Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 2104.3 Single-Ion Conductive 2154.3.1 Introduction of Single-Ion Conductive 2154.3.2 Catalog of Single-Ion Conductive 2164.4 Application of Single-Ion Conductive in Batteries 2174.4.1 Organic Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 2174.4.2 Organic–Inorganic Composite Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 2254.5 Conclusions and Outlook 228References 2305 Application of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 2395.1 Introduction 2395.1.1 The Need for Battery Innovation 2395.1.2 Overview of Self-Healing Materials 2395.1.3 Benefits of Self-Healing Technologies in Batteries 2405.1.4 Challenges in Scaling and Commercializing Self-Healing Materials 2425.2 Types of Self-Healing Materials for Battery Applications 2435.2.1 Physically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 2435.2.2 Chemically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 2435.2.3 Composite Self-Healing Materials with Multiple Repair Mechanisms 2445.3 Applications of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 2445.3.1 Gel Polymer Electrolytes 2445.3.2 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 2565.3.3 Composite Electrolytes 2725.3.4 Electrode Binders 2755.4 Conclusions and Outlook 281References 2826 Application of Low-Dimensional Materials in Batteries 2876.1 Introduction 2876.1.1 Lithium-Metal Batteries 2876.1.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials 2886.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Cathode Materials 2896.2.1 Composite Methods for Low-Dimensional Cathode Materials 2906.2.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 2936.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Materials 2936.2.2.2 Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Materials 2976.2.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 2996.2.3.1 Graphene Materials 2996.2.3.2 MXene Materials 3046.3 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials in Separators 3096.3.1 Zero-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3106.3.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3126.3.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3156.4 Low-Dimensional Composite Current Collectors 3206.4.1 Design of Current Collector 3206.4.2 Nanocomposite Current Collectors 3226.5 Low-Dimensional Composite Anode Materials 3246.5.1 Formation of SEI and Failure Mechanism 3246.5.2 Nanocomposite Lithium Metal Anodes 3256.5.3 Low-Dimensional Materials in 3D-Printing Anodes 3286.6 Conclusion and Outlook 329References 3307 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 3397.1 Introduction 3397.1.1 Overview of Energy Demand and Battery Technologies 3397.1.2 Limitations of Traditional Battery Material 3397.1.3 Potential of Porous Organic Framework Materials for Energy Storage 3407.2 Types of Porous Organic Framework Materials 3417.2.1 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 3417.2.1.1 Types of MOFs 3427.2.2 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 3427.2.2.1 Types of COFs 3437.2.3 Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Frameworks (HOFs) 3437.2.3.1 Types of HOF 3437.3 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 3457.3.1 Applications in Electrode Materials 3457.3.1.1 MOF as Electrode Materials 3457.3.1.2 COF as Electrode Materials 3527.3.1.3 HOF as Electrode Materials 3567.3.2 Applications in Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3597.3.2.1 MOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3597.3.2.2 COF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3647.3.2.3 HOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3677.3.3 Applications in Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3687.3.3.1 MOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3687.3.3.2 COF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3717.3.3.3 HOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3737.3.4 Applications in Battery Separators 3747.3.4.1 MOF as Battery Separator 3747.3.4.2 COF as Battery Separator 3787.3.4.3 HOF as Battery Separator 3807.4 Conclusion and Outlook 3817.4.1 Conclusion 3817.4.2 Outlook 382References 383Index 389

Wei Hu, PhD, is Associate Professor and Doctoral Supervisor at the University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), China. His research interests include polymer composite solid electrolyte, nanomaterials, and intelligent responsive materials. He is currently on the editorial board of Battery Energy.

• Preface xiii1 Application of Organic Functional Additives in Batteries 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Fluorinated Additives 21.2.1 Functions of Fluorinated Additives 21.2.1.1 Improvement of Safety Performance 21.2.1.2 SEI-Forming Additives 21.2.1.3 High Oxidation Stability 41.2.1.4 Promotion of the Formation of Anion-Rich Solvation Structure 51.2.1.5 Reduction of Desolvation Barrier 61.2.2 Synergies of Fluoroethylene Carbonate with Other Compounds 61.2.2.1 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Other Fluorinated Electrolytes 61.2.2.2 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Lewis Base 71.2.2.3 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Glyme 71.2.3 Drawbacks of Fluoroethylene Carbonate 81.2.3.1 Generation of HF Gas 81.2.3.2 Increase of Impedance and Loss of Impedance 81.2.3.3 Incompatibility with Other Electrodes 81.2.3.4 Recycling Issues 91.3 Nitro Additive 91.3.1 Functions of Nitro (NO − 3) 91.3.1.1 Participation in Solvation and Desolvation Structures 91.3.1.2 Formation of Inorganic-Rich SEI 101.3.1.3 CEI-Forming Additives 121.3.1.4 Functions in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 131.3.1.5 Stabilization of Water Molecules 141.3.2 Organic Nitro Additive 141.3.2.1 Complex Nitrate-Based Additives 141.3.2.2 Complex Nitro-Based Additives 151.3.3 Drawbacks and Solutions of Nitro Additives 151.3.3.1 Low Solubility 151.3.3.2 Sacrificial Additives 171.3.3.3 High Decomposition Activation Energy of LiNO 3 181.4 Nitrile Additives 191.4.1 Functions of Nitrile Additives 191.4.1.1 Plasticization 191.4.1.2 Facilitation of Ion Transport 201.4.1.3 Promotion of Lithium Salt Dissolution 221.4.1.4 Widening of the Electrochemical Window 221.4.1.5 Inhibiting the Decomposition of the Electrolyte 221.4.1.6 Low Flammability 221.4.1.7 Improvement of Polymer Flexibility 231.4.1.8 Modification of the Cathode Interface 231.4.1.9 Involvement in the Solvation Structure of Zn 2+ 241.4.1.10 Weakening of Ionic Association 241.4.1.11 Contribution to the Formation of SEI 241.4.2 Compatibility Analysis of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.2.1 Incompatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 251.4.3 Other Drawbacks of Nitrile Additives 281.4.3.1 Low Mechanical Strength 281.4.3.2 Prone to Polymerization 281.4.3.3 Crystallinity 281.5 Phosphate Ester Additives 291.5.1 Functions of Phosphate Ester Additives 291.5.1.1 Flame Retardant 291.5.1.2 Stabilization of Cathodes and Anodes 301.5.1.3 Involvement in Solvation Structure Regulation 311.5.2 Drawbacks of Phosphate Ester 321.5.2.1 Incompatibility with Anodes 321.5.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Phosphate Ester and Lithium Metal 321.6 Sulfate Ester Additives 341.6.1 Functions of Sulfate Ester Additives 341.6.1.1 SEI-Forming Additives 341.6.1.2 CEI-Forming Additives 361.7 Conclusion and Outlook 39References 402 Application of Biopolymers in Batteries 512.1 Introduction 512.2 Overview of Biopolymers 532.2.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) 532.2.2 Chitosan (CS) 542.2.3 Sodium Alginate (SA) 562.2.4 Lignin 572.2.5 Gum Arabic (GA) 572.2.6 Guar Gum (GG) 592.2.7 Xanthan Gum (XG) 592.2.8 Starch 602.2.9 Gelatin 612.2.10 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 622.2.11 Cellulose (CLS) 632.2.12 Trehalose (THL) 642.2.13 Citrulline (Cit) 642.2.14 Pectin 652.2.15 Carrageenan 662.3 Application of Biopolymers in Binders 662.3.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose 672.3.2 Chitosan 682.3.3 Sodium Alginate 702.3.4 Lignin 722.3.5 Gum Arabic 742.3.6 Guar Gum and Xanthan Gum 752.3.7 Starch 752.3.8 Gelatin 762.3.9 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 782.4 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolytes 792.4.1 Cellulose 792.4.2 Chitosan 812.4.3 Lignin 822.4.4 Gelatin 852.5 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolyte Additives 872.5.1 Cellulose 882.5.2 Trehalose 882.5.3 Citrulline 892.5.4 Pectin 902.6 Application of Biopolymers in Separators 902.6.1 Cellulose 912.6.2 Starch 942.6.3 Carrageenan 952.7 Application of Biopolymers in Anode Functional Layers 952.7.1 Cellulose 962.7.2 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate 962.8 Conclusion and Outlook 98References 1003A Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Carbon-chain Polymers 1073A.1 Introduction 1073A.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 1073A.2.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) 1083A.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 1093A.2.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) 1103A.2.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 1113A.2.5 Polyacrylics (PA) 1113A.2.6 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 1123A.2.7 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) 1133A.2.8 Polyolefin (PO) 1143A.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 1153A.3.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1153A.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene 1173A.3.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber 1183A.3.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1193A.3.5 Polyacrylics 1223A.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 1243A.4.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1253A.4.2 Polyacrylonitrile 1293A.4.3 Polyacrylics 1313A.4.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1333A.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 1353A.5.1 Polyolefin 1363A.5.2 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 1383A.5.3 Polyacrylonitrile 1393A.5.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 1403A.6 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Anodes 1423A.6.1 Polyacrylonitrile 1423A.6.2 Polyacrylics 1433A.7 Conclusions and Outlook 143References 1453B Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Hetero-chain Polymers 1553B.1 Introduction 1553B.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 1553B.2.1 Epoxy Resin (EPR) 1563B.2.2 Polyethylenimine (PEI) 1573B.2.3 Polyurethane (PU) 1583B.2.4 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) 1583B.2.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 1593B.2.6 Polyimide (PI) 1603B.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 1613B.3.1 Epoxy Resin 1613B.3.2 Polyethylenimine 1623B.3.3 Polyurethane 1643B.3.4 Polyimide 1663B.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 1673B.4.1 Epoxy Resin 1673B.4.2 Polyurethane 1703B.4.3 Polyethylene Oxide 1733B.4.4 Polyimide 1763B.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 1783B.5.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate 1783B.5.2 Polyimide 1793B.6 Conclusions and Outlook 180References 1824 Application of Nontraditional Organic Ionic Conductors in Batteries 1894.1 Ionic Liquids 1894.1.1 Introduction of Ionic Liquids 1894.1.2 Development of Ionic Liquids 1904.1.3 Catalog of Ionic Liquids 1914.1.4 Advantages of Ionic Liquids for Batteries 1934.1.5 Synthesis and Characterization Method of Ionic Liquids 1934.1.6 Application of Ionic Liquids 1944.2 Application of ILs in Batteries 1964.2.1 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 1984.2.2 Ionic Liquid/Organic Solvent Electrolyte 2064.2.3 Organic–Inorganic Composite Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 2104.3 Single-Ion Conductive 2154.3.1 Introduction of Single-Ion Conductive 2154.3.2 Catalog of Single-Ion Conductive 2164.4 Application of Single-Ion Conductive in Batteries 2174.4.1 Organic Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 2174.4.2 Organic–Inorganic Composite Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 2254.5 Conclusions and Outlook 228References 2305 Application of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 2395.1 Introduction 2395.1.1 The Need for Battery Innovation 2395.1.2 Overview of Self-Healing Materials 2395.1.3 Benefits of Self-Healing Technologies in Batteries 2405.1.4 Challenges in Scaling and Commercializing Self-Healing Materials 2425.2 Types of Self-Healing Materials for Battery Applications 2435.2.1 Physically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 2435.2.2 Chemically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 2435.2.3 Composite Self-Healing Materials with Multiple Repair Mechanisms 2445.3 Applications of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 2445.3.1 Gel Polymer Electrolytes 2445.3.2 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 2565.3.3 Composite Electrolytes 2725.3.4 Electrode Binders 2755.4 Conclusions and Outlook 281References 2826 Application of Low-Dimensional Materials in Batteries 2876.1 Introduction 2876.1.1 Lithium-Metal Batteries 2876.1.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials 2886.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Cathode Materials 2896.2.1 Composite Methods for Low-Dimensional Cathode Materials 2906.2.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 2936.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Materials 2936.2.2.2 Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Materials 2976.2.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 2996.2.3.1 Graphene Materials 2996.2.3.2 MXene Materials 3046.3 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials in Separators 3096.3.1 Zero-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3106.3.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3126.3.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Separators 3156.4 Low-Dimensional Composite Current Collectors 3206.4.1 Design of Current Collector 3206.4.2 Nanocomposite Current Collectors 3226.5 Low-Dimensional Composite Anode Materials 3246.5.1 Formation of SEI and Failure Mechanism 3246.5.2 Nanocomposite Lithium Metal Anodes 3256.5.3 Low-Dimensional Materials in 3D-Printing Anodes 3286.6 Conclusion and Outlook 329References 3307 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 3397.1 Introduction 3397.1.1 Overview of Energy Demand and Battery Technologies 3397.1.2 Limitations of Traditional Battery Material 3397.1.3 Potential of Porous Organic Framework Materials for Energy Storage 3407.2 Types of Porous Organic Framework Materials 3417.2.1 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 3417.2.1.1 Types of MOFs 3427.2.2 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 3427.2.2.1 Types of COFs 3437.2.3 Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Frameworks (HOFs) 3437.2.3.1 Types of HOF 3437.3 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 3457.3.1 Applications in Electrode Materials 3457.3.1.1 MOF as Electrode Materials 3457.3.1.2 COF as Electrode Materials 3527.3.1.3 HOF as Electrode Materials 3567.3.2 Applications in Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3597.3.2.1 MOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3597.3.2.2 COF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3647.3.2.3 HOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 3677.3.3 Applications in Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3687.3.3.1 MOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3687.3.3.2 COF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3717.3.3.3 HOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 3737.3.4 Applications in Battery Separators 3747.3.4.1 MOF as Battery Separator 3747.3.4.2 COF as Battery Separator 3787.3.4.3 HOF as Battery Separator 3807.4 Conclusion and Outlook 3817.4.1 Conclusion 3817.4.2 Outlook 382References 383Index 389