Peng Ge is a professor at the School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, China. His research group develops physical, chemical, and metallurgical approaches, especially including pyrometallurgy, and direct regeneration, for short-process recycling of spent batteries.Yue Yang is a professor at the School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, China. His research focuses on recycling and value-added utilization of secondary resources in non-ferrous metals.

• List of Contributors ixPreface xiii1 Introduction 1Hai Lei, Chao Zhu, Jiexiang Li, Hanyu Zhou, Xiangjin Lu, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang1.1 Production Volume and Distribution of Spent LIBs 11.2 Strategic Significance of Spent LIBs Recycling 31.3 Global Industrialization Landscape of Spent LIBs Recycling 41.4 Full-chain Technological Process for High-value Recycling of Spent LIBs 51.5 Overview of Global Progress in LIBs Recycling 62 Pretreatment 11Shuaiqi Gong, Penghui Shi2.1 Battery Structure and Classification 112.1.1 The Core Structure of Cell 112.1.2 Classified by Shape Structure: Cylindrical, Square, and Soft Bag (Polymer) 122.1.3 Factors Influencing the Selection of Shape Structure 182.1.4 Demands Analysis of Battery Assembly Process for Spent Battery Recycling 192.2 Detection and Evaluation 202.2.1 Physical Testing Methods 202.2.2 Chemical Testing Methods 222.2.3 Electrochemical Testing Methods 242.2.4 Comparison and Analysis of Detection Technologies 262.3 Safe Discharge 312.3.1 Physical Discharge Method 322.3.2 Chemical Discharge Method 332.4 Disassembly and Crushing 372.4.1 CMP Structure Battery Pack Disassembly 372.4.2 Battery Cell Collection 382.4.3 Fragmentation 392.5 Material Sorting 432.5.1 Screening and Pneumatic Separation 432.5.2 Electromagnetic Separation 452.5.3 Flotation 482.5.4 Other Sorting Methods 502.6 Summary 513 Cascaded Utilization 57Zeyu Dong, Gaoyun Tan, Zihao Lu, Yunpeng Wen, Runxuan Chen, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang3.1 The Hub of Resource Recycling and Economic Benefits 573.2 Resource Efficiency and Low-carbon Transition Cornerstone 573.3 Safety Compliance and Systemic Necessity 583.4 Sorting of Retired LIBs 593.5 Sorting and Reconfiguration 603.6 Equalization Technology 643.7 Safety Management Technology 663.8 Safety Management Development Needs: Development of Highly Compatible BMS Systems 683.9 Application Scenarios for Cascading Use (Echelon Utilization) 683.10 Chapter Summary 704 Metallurgical Extraction Techniques 75Xuejing Qiu, Peixiang Gao, Yimeng Zhang, Lingling Xie, Limin Zhu, Xiaoyu Cao4.1 Pyrometallurgical Extraction Techniques 754.1.1 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4, LFP) 754.1.2 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LFP 764.1.3 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2, LCO) 774.1.4 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LCO 794.1.5 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recovery in Ternary Batteries 804.1.6 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for NCM 824.1.7 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in Solid-state Batteries 824.1.8 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Technology 844.1.9 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology Targeting Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 854.2 Hydrometallurgical Extraction Technology 864.2.1 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling in the LFP 86Contents vii4.2.2 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LFP 944.2.3 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LCO 954.2.4 Technical Analysis of the Hydrometallurgical Process for LCO Recovery 984.2.5 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Ternary Battery 994.2.6 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Ternary Cathode Materials 1104.2.7 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Batteries 1114.2.8 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Solid-state Batteries 1124.2.9 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 1144.3 Metallurgical Recycling Development Trends Across Different Battery Systems 1164.3.1 LFP Batteries 1164.3.2 Ternary LIB 1184.3.3 LCO Batteries 1194.3.4 Solid-state Battery 1214.4 Chapter Summary 1224.4.1 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology 1224.4.2 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling Technology 1235 Direct Regeneration Technologies 129Binglei Jiao, Zhichao Yang, Tiyu Jiao, Mengqi Kong, Panpan Xu5.1 Brief Introduction 1295.1.1 Direct Regeneration of Spent Cathode Materials 1295.2 Direct Regeneration of Spent Graphite Anode 1585.2.1 Low-temperature Repair Technology 1585.2.2 High-temperature Graphitization Repair Technology 1645.3 Final Chapter Summary 1686 Pollution Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment of Degraded Lithium-ion Battery Recycling 177Congrui Ouyang, Jin Wang, Wenhao Yu6.1 Pollution Prevention 1776.1.1 Current Status of Pollution and Prevention Strategies in Degraded Battery Recycling 1786.1.2 Pollutants and Pollution Prevention Strategies of Different Recycling Processes 1806.1.3 Comparative Analysis of Current Battery Recycling Technologies 1896.1.4 Demands for Battery Recycling 1896.2 Life Cycle Assessment 1976.2.1 Current Status of LCA for LIBs 197viii Contents6.2.2 Comparison of Different LCA Methods 2016.2.3 Development Trends of LCA Methods 2046.3 Conclusions 206References 2067 Prospects and Outlook 211Zihao Zeng, Chao Zhu, Hai Lei, Run Ren, Quan Zhang, Jiale Zhang, Peng Ge7.1 Pretreatment Technologies 2117.2 Cascade Utilization 2137.3 Metallurgical Recycling 2147.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technologies 2147.3.2 Hydrometallurgical Recovery Technologies 2167.4 Direct Regeneration 2187.4.1 About the Regeneration of Spent LFP 2187.4.2 About the Regeneration of Spent LCO 2197.4.3 About the Regeneration of Spent NCM 2207.5 About the Pollution Controlling and All-life Cycling Assessments 2228 Conclusion 225Chao Zhu, Hai Lei, Run Ren, Quan Zhang, Jiale Zhang, Zihao Zeng, Peng GeIndex 229

Peng Ge is a professor at the School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, China. His research group develops physical, chemical, and metallurgical approaches, especially including pyrometallurgy, and direct regeneration, for short-process recycling of spent batteries.Yue Yang is a professor at the School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, China. His research focuses on recycling and value-added utilization of secondary resources in non-ferrous metals.

• List of Contributors ixPreface xiii1 Introduction 1Hai Lei, Chao Zhu, Jiexiang Li, Hanyu Zhou, Xiangjin Lu, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang1.1 Production Volume and Distribution of Spent LIBs 11.2 Strategic Significance of Spent LIBs Recycling 31.3 Global Industrialization Landscape of Spent LIBs Recycling 41.4 Full-chain Technological Process for High-value Recycling of Spent LIBs 51.5 Overview of Global Progress in LIBs Recycling 62 Pretreatment 11Shuaiqi Gong, Penghui Shi2.1 Battery Structure and Classification 112.1.1 The Core Structure of Cell 112.1.2 Classified by Shape Structure: Cylindrical, Square, and Soft Bag (Polymer) 122.1.3 Factors Influencing the Selection of Shape Structure 182.1.4 Demands Analysis of Battery Assembly Process for Spent Battery Recycling 192.2 Detection and Evaluation 202.2.1 Physical Testing Methods 202.2.2 Chemical Testing Methods 222.2.3 Electrochemical Testing Methods 242.2.4 Comparison and Analysis of Detection Technologies 262.3 Safe Discharge 312.3.1 Physical Discharge Method 322.3.2 Chemical Discharge Method 332.4 Disassembly and Crushing 372.4.1 CMP Structure Battery Pack Disassembly 372.4.2 Battery Cell Collection 382.4.3 Fragmentation 392.5 Material Sorting 432.5.1 Screening and Pneumatic Separation 432.5.2 Electromagnetic Separation 452.5.3 Flotation 482.5.4 Other Sorting Methods 502.6 Summary 513 Cascaded Utilization 57Zeyu Dong, Gaoyun Tan, Zihao Lu, Yunpeng Wen, Runxuan Chen, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang3.1 The Hub of Resource Recycling and Economic Benefits 573.2 Resource Efficiency and Low-carbon Transition Cornerstone 573.3 Safety Compliance and Systemic Necessity 583.4 Sorting of Retired LIBs 593.5 Sorting and Reconfiguration 603.6 Equalization Technology 643.7 Safety Management Technology 663.8 Safety Management Development Needs: Development of Highly Compatible BMS Systems 683.9 Application Scenarios for Cascading Use (Echelon Utilization) 683.10 Chapter Summary 704 Metallurgical Extraction Techniques 75Xuejing Qiu, Peixiang Gao, Yimeng Zhang, Lingling Xie, Limin Zhu, Xiaoyu Cao4.1 Pyrometallurgical Extraction Techniques 754.1.1 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4, LFP) 754.1.2 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LFP 764.1.3 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2, LCO) 774.1.4 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LCO 794.1.5 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recovery in Ternary Batteries 804.1.6 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for NCM 824.1.7 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in Solid-state Batteries 824.1.8 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Technology 844.1.9 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology Targeting Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 854.2 Hydrometallurgical Extraction Technology 864.2.1 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling in the LFP 86Contents vii4.2.2 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LFP 944.2.3 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LCO 954.2.4 Technical Analysis of the Hydrometallurgical Process for LCO Recovery 984.2.5 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Ternary Battery 994.2.6 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Ternary Cathode Materials 1104.2.7 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Batteries 1114.2.8 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Solid-state Batteries 1124.2.9 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 1144.3 Metallurgical Recycling Development Trends Across Different Battery Systems 1164.3.1 LFP Batteries 1164.3.2 Ternary LIB 1184.3.3 LCO Batteries 1194.3.4 Solid-state Battery 1214.4 Chapter Summary 1224.4.1 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology 1224.4.2 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling Technology 1235 Direct Regeneration Technologies 129Binglei Jiao, Zhichao Yang, Tiyu Jiao, Mengqi Kong, Panpan Xu5.1 Brief Introduction 1295.1.1 Direct Regeneration of Spent Cathode Materials 1295.2 Direct Regeneration of Spent Graphite Anode 1585.2.1 Low-temperature Repair Technology 1585.2.2 High-temperature Graphitization Repair Technology 1645.3 Final Chapter Summary 1686 Pollution Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment of Degraded Lithium-ion Battery Recycling 177Congrui Ouyang, Jin Wang, Wenhao Yu6.1 Pollution Prevention 1776.1.1 Current Status of Pollution and Prevention Strategies in Degraded Battery Recycling 1786.1.2 Pollutants and Pollution Prevention Strategies of Different Recycling Processes 1806.1.3 Comparative Analysis of Current Battery Recycling Technologies 1896.1.4 Demands for Battery Recycling 1896.2 Life Cycle Assessment 1976.2.1 Current Status of LCA for LIBs 197viii Contents6.2.2 Comparison of Different LCA Methods 2016.2.3 Development Trends of LCA Methods 2046.3 Conclusions 206References 2067 Prospects and Outlook 211Zihao Zeng, Chao Zhu, Hai Lei, Run Ren, Quan Zhang, Jiale Zhang, Peng Ge7.1 Pretreatment Technologies 2117.2 Cascade Utilization 2137.3 Metallurgical Recycling 2147.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technologies 2147.3.2 Hydrometallurgical Recovery Technologies 2167.4 Direct Regeneration 2187.4.1 About the Regeneration of Spent LFP 2187.4.2 About the Regeneration of Spent LCO 2197.4.3 About the Regeneration of Spent NCM 2207.5 About the Pollution Controlling and All-life Cycling Assessments 2228 Conclusion 225Chao Zhu, Hai Lei, Run Ren, Quan Zhang, Jiale Zhang, Zihao Zeng, Peng GeIndex 229

Peng Ge is a professor at the School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, China. His research group develops physical, chemical, and metallurgical approaches, especially including pyrometallurgy, and direct regeneration, for short-process recycling of spent batteries.Yue Yang is a professor at the School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, China. His research focuses on recycling and value-added utilization of secondary resources in non-ferrous metals.

• List of Contributors ixPreface xiii1 Introduction 1Hai Lei, Chao Zhu, Jiexiang Li, Hanyu Zhou, Xiangjin Lu, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang1.1 Production Volume and Distribution of Spent LIBs 11.2 Strategic Significance of Spent LIBs Recycling 31.3 Global Industrialization Landscape of Spent LIBs Recycling 41.4 Full-chain Technological Process for High-value Recycling of Spent LIBs 51.5 Overview of Global Progress in LIBs Recycling 62 Pretreatment 11Shuaiqi Gong, Penghui Shi2.1 Battery Structure and Classification 112.1.1 The Core Structure of Cell 112.1.2 Classified by Shape Structure: Cylindrical, Square, and Soft Bag (Polymer) 122.1.3 Factors Influencing the Selection of Shape Structure 182.1.4 Demands Analysis of Battery Assembly Process for Spent Battery Recycling 192.2 Detection and Evaluation 202.2.1 Physical Testing Methods 202.2.2 Chemical Testing Methods 222.2.3 Electrochemical Testing Methods 242.2.4 Comparison and Analysis of Detection Technologies 262.3 Safe Discharge 312.3.1 Physical Discharge Method 322.3.2 Chemical Discharge Method 332.4 Disassembly and Crushing 372.4.1 CMP Structure Battery Pack Disassembly 372.4.2 Battery Cell Collection 382.4.3 Fragmentation 392.5 Material Sorting 432.5.1 Screening and Pneumatic Separation 432.5.2 Electromagnetic Separation 452.5.3 Flotation 482.5.4 Other Sorting Methods 502.6 Summary 513 Cascaded Utilization 57Zeyu Dong, Gaoyun Tan, Zihao Lu, Yunpeng Wen, Runxuan Chen, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang3.1 The Hub of Resource Recycling and Economic Benefits 573.2 Resource Efficiency and Low-carbon Transition Cornerstone 573.3 Safety Compliance and Systemic Necessity 583.4 Sorting of Retired LIBs 593.5 Sorting and Reconfiguration 603.6 Equalization Technology 643.7 Safety Management Technology 663.8 Safety Management Development Needs: Development of Highly Compatible BMS Systems 683.9 Application Scenarios for Cascading Use (Echelon Utilization) 683.10 Chapter Summary 704 Metallurgical Extraction Techniques 75Xuejing Qiu, Peixiang Gao, Yimeng Zhang, Lingling Xie, Limin Zhu, Xiaoyu Cao4.1 Pyrometallurgical Extraction Techniques 754.1.1 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4, LFP) 754.1.2 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LFP 764.1.3 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2, LCO) 774.1.4 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LCO 794.1.5 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recovery in Ternary Batteries 804.1.6 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for NCM 824.1.7 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in Solid-state Batteries 824.1.8 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Technology 844.1.9 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology Targeting Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 854.2 Hydrometallurgical Extraction Technology 864.2.1 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling in the LFP 86Contents vii4.2.2 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LFP 944.2.3 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LCO 954.2.4 Technical Analysis of the Hydrometallurgical Process for LCO Recovery 984.2.5 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Ternary Battery 994.2.6 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Ternary Cathode Materials 1104.2.7 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Batteries 1114.2.8 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Solid-state Batteries 1124.2.9 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 1144.3 Metallurgical Recycling Development Trends Across Different Battery Systems 1164.3.1 LFP Batteries 1164.3.2 Ternary LIB 1184.3.3 LCO Batteries 1194.3.4 Solid-state Battery 1214.4 Chapter Summary 1224.4.1 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology 1224.4.2 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling Technology 1235 Direct Regeneration Technologies 129Binglei Jiao, Zhichao Yang, Tiyu Jiao, Mengqi Kong, Panpan Xu5.1 Brief Introduction 1295.1.1 Direct Regeneration of Spent Cathode Materials 1295.2 Direct Regeneration of Spent Graphite Anode 1585.2.1 Low-temperature Repair Technology 1585.2.2 High-temperature Graphitization Repair Technology 1645.3 Final Chapter Summary 1686 Pollution Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment of Degraded Lithium-ion Battery Recycling 177Congrui Ouyang, Jin Wang, Wenhao Yu6.1 Pollution Prevention 1776.1.1 Current Status of Pollution and Prevention Strategies in Degraded Battery Recycling 1786.1.2 Pollutants and Pollution Prevention Strategies of Different Recycling Processes 1806.1.3 Comparative Analysis of Current Battery Recycling Technologies 1896.1.4 Demands for Battery Recycling 1896.2 Life Cycle Assessment 1976.2.1 Current Status of LCA for LIBs 197viii Contents6.2.2 Comparison of Different LCA Methods 2016.2.3 Development Trends of LCA Methods 2046.3 Conclusions 206References 2067 Prospects and Outlook 211Zihao Zeng, Chao Zhu, Hai Lei, Run Ren, Quan Zhang, Jiale Zhang, Peng Ge7.1 Pretreatment Technologies 2117.2 Cascade Utilization 2137.3 Metallurgical Recycling 2147.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technologies 2147.3.2 Hydrometallurgical Recovery Technologies 2167.4 Direct Regeneration 2187.4.1 About the Regeneration of Spent LFP 2187.4.2 About the Regeneration of Spent LCO 2197.4.3 About the Regeneration of Spent NCM 2207.5 About the Pollution Controlling and All-life Cycling Assessments 2228 Conclusion 225Chao Zhu, Hai Lei, Run Ren, Quan Zhang, Jiale Zhang, Zihao Zeng, Peng GeIndex 229