Fundamentals of Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry

The four authors continuing the pioneering work of Frank Attix, Prof Pedro Andreo (Karolinska, Stockholm), Dr David T. Burns (BIPM, Paris), Prof Alan E. Nahum (University of Liverpool) and Prof Jan Seuntjens (McGill University, Montreal), are leading scientists in radiation dosimetry, having published between them more than 600 papers in the field. They have co-authored most of the existing national and international recommendations for radiotherapy dosimetry and received a number of international awards for their contributions.

"[...] this book is a significant update to previous publications on this topic and a major contribution to the field of radiation dosimetry. [...] It is extremely comprehensive in its coverage of every topic from theoretical background toclinical practice. This book will serve every member of the medical physics community well." Prof. Peter J. Biggs in Physica Medica (2018)

• Preface xixQuantities and symbols xxiiiAcronyms xxxix1 Background and Essentials 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Types and Sources of Ionizing Radiation 11.3 Consequences of the Random Nature of Radiation 41.4 Interaction Cross Sections 61.5 Kinematic Relativistic Expressions 91.6 Atomic Relaxations 111.7 Evaluation of Uncertainties 22Exercises 282 Charged-Particle Interactions with Matter 292.1 Introduction 292.2 Types of Charged-Particle Interactions 312.3 Elastic Scattering 362.4 Inelastic Scattering and Energy Loss 552.5 Radiative Energy Loss: Bremsstrahlung 952.6 Total Stopping Power 1032.7 Range of Charged Particles 1042.8 Number and Energy Distributions of Secondary Particles 1062.9 Nuclear Stopping Power and Interactions by Heavy Charged Particles 1122.10 The W-Value (Mean Energy to Create an Ion Pair) 1142.11 Addendum –Derivation of Expressions for the Elastic and Inelastic Scattering of Heavy Charged Particles 119Exercises 1393 Uncharged-Particle Interactions with Matter 1433.1 Introduction 1433.2 Photon Interactions with Matter 1433.3 Photoelectric Effect 1453.4 Thomson Scattering 1543.5 Rayleigh Scattering (Coherent Scattering) 1573.6 Compton Scattering (Incoherent Scattering) 1613.7 Pair Production and Triplet Production 1783.8 Positron Annihilation 1883.9 Photonuclear Interactions 1913.10 Photon Interaction Coefficients 1933.11 Neutron Interactions 204Exercises 2114 Field and Dosimetric Quantities, Radiation Equilibrium – Definitions and Inter-Relations 2154.1 Introduction 2154.2 Stochastic and Non-stochastic Quantities 2154.3 Radiation Field Quantities and Units 2164.4 Distributions of Field Quantities 2194.5 Quantities Describing Radiation Interactions 2204.6 Dosimetric Quantities 2294.7 Relationships Between Field and Dosimetric Quantities 2334.8 Radiation Equilibrium (RE) 2394.9 Charged-Particle Equilibrium (CPE) 2424.10 Partial Charged-Particle Equilibrium (PCPE) 2484.11 Summary of the Inter-Relations between Fluence, Kerma, Cema, and Dose 2524.12 Addendum – Example Calculations of (Net) Energy Transferred and Imparted 252Exercises 2565 Elementary Aspects of the Attenuation of Uncharged Particles 2595.1 Introduction 2595.2 Exponential Attenuation 2595.3 Narrow-Beam Attenuation 2615.4 Broad-Beam Attenuation 2635.5 Spectral Effects 2705.6 The Build-up Factor 2715.7 Divergent Beams –The Inverse Square Law 2735.8 The Scaling Theorem 276Exercises 2776 Macroscopic Aspects of the Transport of Radiation Through Matter 2796.1 Introduction 2796.2 The Radiation Transport Equation Formalism 2806.3 Introduction to Monte Carlo Derived Distributions 2866.4 Electron Beam Distributions 2876.5 Protons and Heavier Charged Particle Beam Distributions 2966.6 Photon Beam Distributions 3016.7 Neutron Beam Distributions 3096.7.1 Fluence Distributions 3096.7.2 Dose Distributions 311Exercises 3137 Characterization of Radiation Quality 3157.1 Introduction 3157.2 General Aspects of Radiation Spectra. Mean Energy 3167.3 Beam Quality Specification for Kilovoltage x-ray Beams 3187.4 Megavoltage Photon Beam Quality Specification 3267.5 High-Energy Electron Beam Quality Specification 3317.6 Beam Quality Specification of Protons and Heavier Charged Particles 3357.7 Energy Spectra Determination 339Exercises 3468 The Monte Carlo Simulation of the Transport of Radiation Through Matter 3498.1 Introduction 3498.2 Basics of the Monte Carlo Method (MCM) 3508.3 Simulation of Radiation Transport 3598.4 Monte Carlo Codes and Systems in the Public Domain 3798.5 Monte Carlo Applications in Radiation Dosimetry 3868.6 Other Monte Carlo Developments 393Exercises 3949 Cavity Theory 3979.1 Introduction 3979.2 Cavities That Are Small Compared to Secondary Electron Ranges 3999.3 Stopping-Power Ratios 4139.4 Cavities That Are Large Compared to Electron Ranges 4239.5 General or Burlin Cavity Theory 4259.6 The Fano Theorem 4299.7 Practical Detectors: Deviations from ‘Ideal’ Cavity Theory Conditions 4319.8 Summary and Validation of Cavity Theory 435Exercises 44010 Overview of Radiation Detectors and Measurements 44310.1 Introduction 44310.2 Detector Response and Calibration Coefficient 44410.3 Absolute, Reference, and Relative Dosimetry 44510.4 General Characteristics and Desirable Properties of Detectors 44710.5 Brief Description of Various Types of Detectors 46010.6 Addendum –The Role of the Density Effect and I-Values in the Medium-to-Water Stopping-Power Ratio 467Exercises 47111 Primary Radiation Standards 47311.1 Introduction 47311.2 Free-Air Ionization Chambers 47411.3 Primary Cavity Ionization Chambers 48111.4 Absorbed-Dose Calorimeters 48411.5 Fricke Chemical Dosimeter 48811.6 International Framework for Traceability in Radiation Dosimetry 49011.7 Addendum – Experimental Derivation of Fundamental Dosimetric Quantities 491Exercises 49312 Ionization Chambers 49712.1 Introduction 49712.2 Types of Ionization Chamber 49812.3 Measurement of Ionization Current 50412.4 Ion Recombination 51312.5 Addendum –Air Humidity in Dosimetry 524Exercises 53113 Chemical Dosimeters 53313.1 Introduction 53313.2 Radiation Chemistry in Water 53313.3 Chemical Heat Defect 53813.4 Ferrous Sulfate Dosimeters 53913.5 Alanine Dosimetry 54713.6 Film Dosimetry 55613.7 Gel Dosimetry 568Exercises 57414 Solid-State Detector Dosimetry 57714.1 Introduction 57714.2 Thermoluminescence Dosimetry 57714.3 Optically-Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters 59114.4 Scintillation Dosimetry 59614.5 Semiconductor Detectors for Dosimetry 609Exercises 62815 Reference Dosimetry for External Beam Radiation Therapy 63115.1 Introduction 63115.2 A Generalized Formalism 63215.3 Practical Implementation of Formalisms 63615.4 Quantities Entering into the Various Formalisms 65115.5 Accuracy of Radiation Therapy Reference Dosimetry 66915.6 Addendum – Perturbation Correction Factors 671Exercises 68916 Dosimetry of Small and Composite Radiotherapy Photon Beams 69316.1 Introduction 69316.2 Overview 69416.3 The Physics of Small Megavoltage Photon Beams 69616.4 Dosimetry of Small Beams 70116.5 Detectors for Small-Beam Dosimetry 71416.6 Dosimetry of Composite Fields 71716.7 Addendum—Measurement in Plastic Phantoms 723Exercises 72617 Reference Dosimetry for Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology 72917.1 Introduction 72917.2 Specific Quantities and Units 73017.3 Formalism for Reference Dosimetry 73617.4 Quantities Entering into the Formalism 740Exercises 75118 Absorbed Dose Determination for Radionuclides 75318.1 Introduction 75318.2 Radioactivity Quantities and Units 75518.3 Dosimetry of Unsealed Radioactive Sources 76318.4 Dosimetry of Sealed Radioactive Sources 78818.5 Addendum –The Reciprocity Theorem for Unsealed Radionuclide Dosimetry 804Exercises 80919 Neutron Dosimetry 81319.1 Introduction 81319.2 Neutron Interactions in Tissue and Tissue-Equivalent Materials 81419.3 Neutron Sources 81819.4 Principles of Mixed-Field Dosimetry 82119.5 Neutron Detectors 82519.6 Reference Dosimetry of Neutron Radiotherapy Beams 833Exercises 838A Data Tables 841A.1 Fundamental and Derived Physical Constants 841A.2 Data of Elements 843A.3 Data for Compounds and Mixtures 846A.4 Atomic Binding Energies for Elements 846A.5 Atomic Fluorescent X-ray Mean Energies and Yields for Elements 857A.6 Interaction Data for Electrons and Positrons (Electronic Form) 863A.7 Interaction Data for Protons and Heavier Charged Particles (Electronic Form) 868A.8 Interaction Data for Photons (Electronic Form) 874A.9 Neutron Kerma Coefficients (Electronic Form) 879References 881Index 945