Handbook of Vacuum Technology

Karl Jousten is head of the section Vacuum Metrology at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), the German National Institute for Metrology. He obtained his masters and Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Heidelberg. After working as a post-doc at the Max-Planck-Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg, at the Oregon Graduate Institute of Science and Technology in the United States, and finally at the Fritz-Haber-Institute in Berlin, he joined the vacuum group at PTB in Berlin in 1990 that he leads since 1992. He has authored many scientific articles in the field as well as contributions to textbooks and edits the German edition of this book, "Wutz Handbuch Vakuumtechnik". He is active in the field of national (DIN) and international (ISO) standardization in vacuum technology. From 2005 to 2008, Karl Jousten has served as President of the German Vacuum Society. Since 2005 he chairs the international working group for low and very low pressures of the respective committee (CCM) of the Meter Convention.

• Preface xxiii1 The History of Vacuum Science and Vacuum Technology 1References 16Further Reading 172 Applications and Scope of Vacuum Technology 19References 273 Gas Laws and Kinetic Theory of Gases 293.1 Description of the Gas State 293.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases 383.3 Transport Properties of Gases 503.4 Real Gases 653.5 Vapors 75References 81Comprehensive general treatments of the subject 824 Gas Flow 834.1 Types of Flows and Definitions 834.2 Inviscid Viscous Flow and Gas Dynamics 934.3 Frictional–Viscous Flow through a Tube 1144.4 Molecular Flow under High-Vacuum and Ultrahigh-Vacuum Conditions 1314.5 Flow throughout the Entire Pressure Range 1514.6 Flow with Temperature Difference, Thermal Effusion, and Transpiration 1584.7 Measuring Flow Conductances 162References 166Further Reading 1665 Analytical and Numerical Calculations of Rarefied Gas Flows 1675.1 Main Concepts 1675.2 Methods of Calculations of Gas Flows 1785.3 Velocity Slip and Temperature Jump Phenomena 1815.4 Momentum and Heat Transfer Through Rarefied Gases 1855.5 Flows Through Long Pipes 1995.6 Flow Through an Orifice 2185.7 Modeling of Holweck Pump 2215.8 Appendix A 223References 2256 Sorption and Diffusion 2296.1 Sorption Phenomena and the Consequences, Definitions, and Terminology 2296.2 Adsorption and Desorption Kinetics 2346.3 Absorption, Diffusion, and Outgassing 2476.4 Permeation 254References 256Further Reading 2567 Positive Displacement Pumps 2597.1 Introduction and Overview 2597.2 Oscillating Positive Displacement Pumps 2627.3 Single-Shaft Rotating Positive Displacement Pumps 2767.4 Twin-Spool Rotating Positive Displacement Pumps 3057.5 Specific Properties of Oil-Sealed Positive Displacement Pumps 3317.6 Basics of Positive Displacement Pumps 3377.7 Operating and Safety Recommendations 3457.8 Specific Accessories for Positive Displacement Pumps 350References 356Further Reading on Positive Displacement Pumps 3598 Condensers 3618.1 Condensation Processes Under Vacuum 3618.2 Condenser Designs 3708.3 Integrating Condensers into Vacuum Systems 3768.4 Calculation Examples 380References 3829 Jet and Diffusion Pumps 3839.1 Introduction and Overview 3839.2 Liquid Jet Vacuum Pumps 3859.3 Steam Jet Vacuum Pumps 3879.4 Diffusion Pumps 3969.5 Diffusion Pumps Versus Vapor Jet Pumps 415References 41710 Molecular and Turbomolecular Pumps 41910.1 Introduction 41910.2 Molecular Pumps 42110.3 Molecular and Regenerative Drag Pump Combination 42710.4 Physical Fundamentals of Turbomolecular Pump Stages 43010.5 Turbomolecular Pumps 43910.6 Performance Characteristics of Turbomolecular Pumps 45010.7 Operation and Maintenance of Turbomolecular Pumps 45510.8 Applications 457References 46011 Sorption Pumps 46311.1 Introduction 46311.2 Adsorption Pumps 46411.3 Getter 47211.4 Ion Getter Pumps 49311.5 Orbitron Pumps 507References 508Further Reading 50912 Cryotechnology and Cryopumps 51112.1 Introduction 51112.2 Methods of Refrigeration 51212.3 Working Principles of Cryopumps 52012.4 Design of Cryopumps 53112.5 Characteristics of a Cryopump 54712.6 Application Examples 555References 56213 Total Pressure Vacuum Gauges 56513.1 Introduction 56513.2 Mechanical Vacuum Gauges 56613.3 Spinning Rotor Gauges (Gas-Friction Vacuum Gauges) 58413.4 Direct Electric Pressure Measuring Transducers 59313.5 Thermal Conductivity Vacuum Gauges 59413.6 Thermal Mass Flowmeters 60413.7 Ionization Gauges 60713.8 Combined Vacuum Gauges 637References 63914 Partial Pressure Vacuum Gauges and Leak Detectors 64314.1 Introduction 64314.2 Partial Pressure Analysis by Mass Spectrometry 64314.3 Partial Pressure Measurement Using Optical Methods 67214.4 Leak Detectors 675References 69215 Calibrations and Standards 69715.1 Introduction 69715.2 Calibration of Vacuum Gauges 70015.3 Calibrations of Residual Gas Analyzers 73315.4 Calibration of Test Leaks 73515.5 Standards for Determining Characteristics of Vacuum Pumps 738References 74216 Materials 74716.1 Requirements and Overview of Materials 74716.2 Materials for Vacuum Technology 74916.3 Gas Permeability and Gas Emissions of Materials 763References 774Further Reading 77517 Vacuum Components, Seals, and Joints 77717.1 Introduction 77717.2 Vacuum Hygiene 77817.3 Joining Technologies in Vacuum Technology 78117.4 Components 806Abbreviations 839References 84018 Operating Vacuum Systems 84318.1 Electronic Integration of Vacuum Systems 84318.2 Calculation of Vacuum Systems 85118.3 Pressure Control 85918.4 Techniques for Operating Low-Vacuum Systems 86018.5 Techniques for Operating Fine-Vacuum Systems 87018.6 Techniques for Operating High-Vacuum Systems 87918.7 Techniques for Operating Ultrahigh-Vacuum Systems 892References 90419 Methods of Leak Detection 90719.1 Overview 90719.2 Properties of Leaks 91219.3 Overview of Leak-Detection Methods (See Also DIN EN 1779) 91819.4 Leak Detection Using Helium Leak Detectors 92519.5 Leak Detection with Other Tracer Gases 93619.6 Industrial Tightness Testing of Mass-Production Components 937References 942Further Reading 942Appendix 943Index 1003Directory of Products and Suppliers 1023