Ved P. Nanda, BA, MA (1952) Punjab University, India; LLB (1955), LLM (1958) Delhi University, India; LLM (1962) Northwestern University, is the Evans University Professor, Thompson G. Marsh Professor, and Director of the International Legal Studies Program at the University of Denver Sturm College of Law; biography and publications at www.law.du.edu/index.php/profile/ved-nanda.George (Rock) Pring, BA hons. (1963) Harvard University; JD hons (1968) University of Michigan, is a Professor of Law at the University of Denver Sturm College of Law; biography and publications at www.law.du.edu/index.php/profile/george-pring.

• AcknowledgementsPart I: IntroductionChapter One: International Environmental Law: The Nature and Scope of the Challenge1.0: Introduction1.1: The Sources or Bases of International Environmental Law1.1.1: International Conventional Law1.1.2: International Customary Law1.1.3: General Principles of Law1.1.4: Judicial Decisions1.1.5: Scholarly Writings1.1.6: New Sources of International LawChapter Two: The Fundamental Principles of International Environmental Law2.0: Introduction2.1 Fundamental Substantive Principles2.1.1: State Sovereignty2.1.2: “Good Neighborliness” – The Duty to Cooperate2.1.3: The No-Harm Rule2.1.4: Sustainable Development2.1.5: Right to Development2.1.6: Right to a Clean, Healthful Environment2.1.7: Environmental Justice: Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity2.1.8: Equitable Utilization of Shared Resources2.1.9: Conservation2.1.10: The Common Heritage of Humankind - “The Global Commons”2.1.11: The Common Concern of Humankind – Erga Omnes2.1.12: Common but Differentiated Responsibilities2.1.13: The Polluter-Pays Principle2.1.14: State Responsibility and Liability2.2 Fundamental Procedural Principles2.2.1: Public Participation2.2.2: Prior Notification, Consultation, and Negotiation Duties2.2.3: The Prevention Principle2.2.4: The Precautionary Principle2.2.5: Duty to Do Environmental Impact Assessment2.2.6: Duty to Adopt Effective National Law—The Duty to Enforce2.2.7: The Integration PrinciplePart II: LawmakingChapter Three: The Early Years3.0: Introduction3.1: International Agreements3.1.1: Early 20th Century Agreements3.1.2: The 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty3.1.3: Other Agreements3.2: Case Law3.2.1: Bering Sea Fur Seals Arbitration3.2.2: The Trail Smelter Arbitration3.2.3: The Corfu Channel Case3.2.4: The Lac Lanoux Arbitration3.2.5: The Japanese Fishermen Case3.2.6: The 1958 US Pacific Nuclear Tests3.2.7: Nuclear Tests Cases (Australia v. France and New Zealand v. France)3.2.8: Pollution of Ciudad Juarez3.2.9: The 1969 Gut Dam Case3.2.10: Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion3.2.11: Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project3.2.12: The MOX Plant Case (Ireland v. UK)3.2.13: Iron Rhine Railway Arbitration (Belg. v. Neth.)3.2.14: Case Concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay)3.3: AppraisalChapter Four: The Next 40 Years: The Evolution of International Environmental Policy from 1972 to the Present4.0: Introduction4.1: The Stockholm Conference and Declaration4.1.1: Analysis4.1.2: Appraisal4.2: The Post-Stockholm Period: The Flowering of UNEP4.2.1: Introduction4.2.2: Environmental Assessment4.2.3: Environmental Management4.2.4: Environmental Law4.2.5: Appraisal4.3: The Rio Conference on Environment and Development4.3.1: Introduction4.3.2: The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development4.3.3: Agenda 214.3.4: The Commission on Sustainable Development4.3.5: Appraisal4.4.: The Uneven Road from Rio to Rio (1992-2012)4.4.1: The CSD and “Rio+5”4.4.2: UNEP Reforms for the New Century4.4.3: The 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development4.4.4: “Rio+20” – the Return to Rio4.5: International Environmental Law, Multilateral Environmental Agreements, and International Environmental Governance4.5.1: UNEP and International Environmental Law4.5.2: UNEP and Multilateral Environmental Agreements4.5.3: UNEP and International Environmental GovernanceChapter Five: International Environmental Institutions and Organizations5.0: Introduction5.1: The United Nations “Family”5.2: International Financial Organizations5.3: Other International IGOs5.4: Regional International IGOs5.5: Nonstate Entities: NGOs and Business Interests5.5.1: International NGOs5.5.2: Multinational Corporations and Other Business Interests5.5.3: Corporate Social ResponsibilityPart III: The Key IssuesChapter Six: Environmental Impact Assessment6.0: Introduction6.1: EIA Procedures: The Common Requirements6.2: The Development of EIA Requirements in International Law6.3: IFIs’ EIA Requirements6.4: The Future of EIAChapter Seven: Energy and the Environment: An International Perspective7.0: Introduction7.1: Energy, Economic Development, and the Environment7.1.1: Energy Availability and Usage and Economic Development7.1.2: Tension Between Energy Generation and Consumption and the Environment7.1.3: Energy and Related Trends7.2: The Evolution of Energy and Environmental Law in an International Context7.3: International Law Related to Energy and the Environment7.3.1: Introduction7.3.2: Nuclear Energy7.3.3: Marine Oil Pollution from Ships7.3.4: Energy Charter Treaty7.4: Looking Ahead7.4.1: Introduction7.4.2: A New Paradigm for Regulating Energy? Global Energy Governance7.5: ConclusionChapter Eight: Preservation8.0: Introduction8.1: Preservation Laws Prior to the 1970s8.1.1: The Early Wildlife Laws8.1.2: The Western Hemisphere Conservation Convention8.2: Preservation Efforts: The Stockholm Era: 1972-19928.2.1: Ecosystems8.2.2: Natural and Cultural Resources8.2.3: Endangered Species8.2.4: The Global Commons8.3: Preservation Efforts: Rio and the 21st Century8.3.1: The Convention on Biological Diversity8.3.2: Forests8.3.3: Desertification8.4: ConclusionChapter Nine: International Freshwater Resources9.0: Introduction9.1: Development of Customary International Law9.1.1: The Major Cases9.1.2: The Key “Soft Law” Developments9.2: The 1997 UN Convention on International Watercourses9.2.1: Adoption of the “Ecosystem” Concept9.2.2: Conflict Between the Principles of “Equitable Utilization” and “No Significant Harm”9.2.3: Pollution Control9.2.4: Other Important Provisions of the International Watercourses Convention9.3: Bilateral, Multilateral, and Regional Regimes of International Freshwater Regulation9.4: Groundwater9.5: ConclusionChapter Ten: International Air Pollution10.0: Introduction10.1: Transboundary Air Pollution10.1.1: Introduction10.1.2: Customary International Law Governing Transboundary Air Pollution10.1.3: Regional Treaty and Planning Regimes10.2: Stratospheric Ozone Depletion10.2.1: Introduction10.2.2: The Problem10.2.3: Evidence of Loss10.2.4: Long-Term Consequences10.2.5: Policy Implications10.2.6: Prior to the 1985 Vienna Convention10.2.7: The 1985 Vienna Ozone Convention10.2.8: The 1987 Montreal Protocol and Subsequent Amendments10.2.9: Developments in the United States and the European Union10.2.10: Appraisal and Recommendations10.3: Global Climate Change10.3.1: Introduction10.3.2: The “Greenhouse” Effect10.3.3: Preventive Strategies and Problems10.3.4: The Framework Convention on Climate Change10.3.5: The Kyoto Protocol10.3.6: Negotiating the Implementation of Kyoto 1998-200510.3.7: An Assessment of the Kyoto Protocol10.3.8: Developing a Post-Kyoto FrameworkChapter Eleven: The Marine Environment11.0: Introduction11.1: Framework of the Convention11.2: Contribution of the Convention to International Environmental Law11.2.1: Environmental Assessment Provisions11.2.2: Law-Making and Law Enforcement Provisions11.2.3: Special Status of Developing States11.2.4: Protection of Living Resources11.2.5: Dispute Settlement Provisions11.2.6: The Relationship of the Convention and Customary Law11.2.7: Appraisal11.3: International and Regional Conventions11.3.1: Regional Conventions11.3.2: International Conventions and Actions11.4: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea11.5: ConclusionChapter Twelve: Hazardous Waste, Chemicals, and Technology12.0: Introduction12.1: The International Environmental Laws Governing Hazardous Waste12.1.1: Developments Leading up to the Basel Convention12.1.2: The Basel Convention12.1.3: Post-Basel Developments: The “Banners” vs. the “Boosters” of Hazardous Waste Trade12.2: International Controls on Chemicals12.2.1: Introduction12.2.2: The Beginnings: Voluntary International Chemical Control Effects12.2.3: The Recent Development of Binding Chemical Treaties12.3: International Controls on Hazardous Technologies, Industries, and Activities12.4: ConclusionChapter Thirteen: Biotechnology in Food and the Biosafety Protocol13.0: Introduction13.1: Background13.1.1: The Process13.1.2: The Controversy13.2: Regulation of Genetically-Modified Foods--The Key Concepts13.2.1: The Precautionary Principle13.2.2: Substantial Evidence13.2.3: Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)13.2.4: The Consumer’s Right to Know13.3: The International Standards for Genetically Modified Foods--The Codex Alimentarius Commission13.4: Efforts to Regulate GMOS13.4.1: The European Union13.4.2: The United States13.5: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity13.5.1: Events Leading up to the Biosafety Protocol13.5.2: Content and Analysis13.5.3: AppraisalChapter Fourteen: International Trade and the Environment14.0: Introduction14.1: The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development--Agenda 2114.2: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the World Trade Organization14.2.1: Environmental Trade Measures14.2.2: GATT Panel Decisions Before the Establishment of the WTO14.2.3: WTO Cases14.2.4: WTO’s Trade and Environment Committee14.2.5: Appraisal14.3: North American Free Trade Agreement14.3.1: Overview14.3.2: Review of the Pertinent NAFTA Provisions14.3.3: Criticisms of NAFTA14.3.4: North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation14.4: ConclusionChapter Fifteen: The Environment and Human Rights15.0: Introduction15.1: The Challenge of Environmental Degradation15.2: Historical Progression15.3: Developments in the United States15.4: The Right to Environmental Protection15.4.1: The Nexus Between Environmental Protection and Internationally Recognized Human Rights15.4.2: International and National Tribunals and the Right to a Healthy Environment15.5: Operationalizing the Right to Environment15.6: Appraisal and Recommendations15.7: Rights of Indigenous Peoples15.7.1: Introduction: A Case Study15.7.2: What is “Indigenous”?15.7.3: Early International Legal Protection15.7.4: The Universal Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples15.8: Population, Human Rights, and the Environment15.8.1: Introduction15.8.2: The Nature and Scope of the Problem15.8.3: The Population – Human Rights Nexus15.8.4: The ICPD Program of Action and Subsequent Developments15.8.5: ConclusionPart IV: ConclusionChapter Sixteen: The Unfinished Agenda16.0: The Challenge16.1: Addressing the Challenge16.2: A Final Word