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During the Civil War, one of the tales that was often told among Confederate soldiers was that Joseph E. Johnston was a crack shot who was a better bird hunter than just about everyone else in the South. However, as the story went, Johnston would never take the shot when asked to, complaining that something was wrong with the situation that prevented him from being able to shoot the bird when it was time.

The story is almost certainly apocryphal, but it was aptly used to demonstrate the Confederates’ frustration with a man who everyone regarded as a capable general. Johnston began the Civil War as one of the South’s senior commanders, leading the ironically named Army of the Potomac to victory in the Battle of First Bull Run over Irvin McDowell’s Union Army. But Johnston would become known more for losing by not winning. Johnston was never badly beaten in battle, but he had a habit of strategically withdrawing until he had nowhere left to retreat. When Johnston had retreated in the face of McClellan’s army before Richmond in 1862, he finally launched a complex attack that not only failed but left him severely wounded, forcing him to turn over command of the Army of Northern Virginia to Robert E. Lee.

Johnston and Confederate President Jefferson Davis had a volatile relationship throughout the war, but Johnston was too valuable to leave out of service and at the beginning of 1864 he was given command of the Army of Tennessee. When Johnston gradually retreated in the face of Sherman’s massive army (which outnumbered his 2-1) before Atlanta in 1864, Davis removed Johnston from command of the Army of Tennessee and gave it to John Bell Hood.

Johnston has never received the plaudits of many of the South’s other generals; in fact, there are only a couple of monuments commemorating his service in the South. Yet Johnston was a competent general who fought in some of the most important campaigns of the Civil War, and it’s often forgotten that it was his surrender to Sherman weeks after Appomattox that truly ended the Civil War. Johnston did so over Davis’s command to keep fighting, incurring his wrath once more. Having dealt with each other, Sherman and Johnston became friends after the war, and when the elderly Johnston served as a pallbearer at Sherman’s funeral, he contracted an illness that eventually killed him.

Given his prominent and controversial role in the Civil War, Johnston naturally took to writing memoirs, Narrative of Military Operations During the Civil War, which gives an extremely detailed account of the war, a defense of his actions, and criticism of Jefferson Davis and John Bell Hood. One of the most interesting parts of Johnston’s memoirs come at the end, with his letters, telegrams, and even an anecdote about the origins of the Confederate Battle Flag.

With the exception of George Washington, perhaps the most famous general in American history is Robert E. Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870), despite the fact he led the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia against the Union in the Civil War. As the son of U.S. Revolutionary War hero Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III, and a relative of Martha Custis Washington, Lee was imbued with a strong sense of honor and duty from the beginning. And as a top graduate of West Point, Lee had distinguished himself so well before the Civil War that President Lincoln asked him to command the entire Union Army. Lee famously declined, serving his home state of Virginia instead after it seceded.

Lee is remembered today for constantly defeating the Union’s Army of the Potomac in the Eastern theater from 1862-1865, considerably frustrating Lincoln and his generals. His leadership of his army led to him being deified after the war by some of his former subordinates, especially Virginians, and he came to personify the Lost Cause’s ideal Southern soldier. His reputation was secured in the decades after the war as a general who brilliantly led his men to amazing victories against all odds.

Despite his successes and his legacy, Lee wasn’t perfect. And of all the battles Lee fought in, he was most criticized for Gettysburg, particularly his order of Pickett’s Charge on the third and final day of the war. Despite the fact his principle subordinate and corps leader, General James Longstreet, advised against the charge, Lee went ahead with it, ending the army’s defeat at Gettysburg with a violent climax that left half of the men who charged killed or wounded.

During the Civil War, one of the tales that was often told among Confederate soldiers was that Joseph E. Johnston was a crack shot who was a better bird hunter than just about everyone else in the South. However, as the story went, Johnston would never take the shot when asked to, complaining that something was wrong with the situation that prevented him from being able to shoot the bird when it was time.

 The story is almost certainly apocryphal, but it was aptly used to demonstrate the Confederates’ frustration with a man who everyone regarded as a capable general. Johnston began the Civil War as one of the South’s senior commanders, leading the ironically named Army of the Potomac to victory in the Battle of First Bull Run over Irvin McDowell’s Union Army. But Johnston would become known more for losing by not winning. Johnston was never badly beaten in battle, but he had a habit of strategically withdrawing until he had nowhere left to retreat. When Johnston had retreated in the face of McClellan’s army before Richmond in 1862, he finally launched a complex attack that not only failed but left him severely wounded, forcing him to turn over command of the Army of Northern Virginia to Robert E. Lee.

 Johnston and Confederate President Jefferson Davis had a volatile relationship throughout the war, but Johnston was too valuable to leave out of service and at the beginning of 1864 he was given command of the Army of Tennessee. When Johnston gradually retreated in the face of Sherman’s massive army (which outnumbered his 2-1) before Atlanta in 1864, Davis removed Johnston from command of the Army of Tennessee and gave it to John Bell Hood.

 Johnston has never received the plaudits of many of the South’s other generals; in fact, there are only a couple of monuments commemorating his service in the South. Yet Johnston was a competent general who fought in some of the most important campaigns of the Civil War, and it’s often forgotten that it was his surrender to Sherman weeks after Appomattox that truly ended the Civil War. Johnston did so over Davis’s command to keep fighting, incurring his wrath once more.  

Africa may have given rise to the first human beings, and Egypt probably gave rise to the first great civilizations, which continue to fascinate modern societies across the globe nearly 5,000 years later. From the Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria to the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Ancient Egyptians produced several wonders of the world, revolutionized architecture and construction, created some of the world’s first systems of mathematics and medicine, and established language and art that spread across the known world. With world-famous leaders like King Tut and Cleopatra, it’s no wonder that today’s world has so many Egyptologists.

What makes the accomplishments of the Ancient Egyptians all the more remarkable is that Egypt was historically a place of great political turbulence. Its position made it both valuable and vulnerable to tribes across the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and Ancient Egypt had no shortage of its own internecine warfare. Its most famous conquerors would come from Europe, with Alexander the Great laying the groundwork for the Hellenic Ptolemy line and the Romans extinguishing that line after defeating Cleopatra and driving her to suicide.

The World’s Greatest Civilizations: The History and Culture of Ancient Egypt comprehensively covers the history and culture of Ancient Egypt, looking at its religious, political, foreign and military past, and examining all the architectural and artistic achievements from 3,000-30 B.C. Along with historic artwork depicting important people, places, and events, The History and Culture of Ancient Egypt will bring readers up to speed on Ancient Egypt today.    

"The moment we begin to fear the opinions of others and hesitate to tell the truth that is in us, and from motives of policy are silent when we should speak, the divine floods of light and life no longer flow into our souls." – Elizabeth Cady Stanton

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors’ American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America’s most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton is something of an unsung hero in the history of the feminist movement. Though she is still primarily known as an advocate of women’s suffrage and is closely linked to the better known Susan B. Anthony, Stanton was shunned by many of her fellow suffragists because her ideas seem too radical and because many were disturbed by her barely Deist view of religion.  Over a century after her death, modern feminists tend to overlook Stanton in favor of Anthony, while remembering that Stanton enjoyed taking on the traditional 19th century gender roles of being the mother of a large family and remaining devoted to her husband throughout her life. And while Anthony’s comments about abortion are still fiercely debated by pro-life and pro-choice crowds, Stanton held conservative views toward abortion. It’s clear that Elizabeth Cady Stanton was very much her own woman, certainly a fitting description that she would not have wanted any other way.

Though she is not as well known or fondly remembered as her closest counterpart, Stanton preceded Anthony as an advocate of women’s rights. It was Stanton who issued the Declaration of Sentiments at the first women''s rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848, touching off the organized movement that worked toward suffrage and equality. At the same time, Stanton was an ardent abolitionist, and she focused on progressive issues like custody rights, divorce, women’s property rights, employment issues, and even birth control.

American Legends: The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton chronicles the amazing life and work of one of America’s best known suffragists, examining her ideology and the controversies she generated. Along with pictures, you will learn about Elizabeth Cady Stanton like you never have before, in no time at all.

Jubal Early (1816-1894) fought two big wars during his life. About 150 years ago, Early played an important role as a general for the Confederacy, fighting his way up the ranks until he was eventually given an independent command by Robert E. Lee in late 1864. Early served under Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee, rising from regiment commander to Corps commander in the Army of Northern Virginia, and he played crucial roles in key battles like Gettysburg and in the Shenandoah Valley campaigns. During his raid toward Washington D.C., his forces nearly killed President Lincoln during a battle at Fort Stevens, making Lincoln the only sitting president to come under live fire.

However, it was Early’s writing that truly changed history.  During the 1870s, Early was one of the writers for the Southern Historical Society who helped establish the Lost Cause, a cultural phenomenon that dominated the writing of Civil War history for a century and is still a widely held view today. His autobiography, Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early , Confederate States of America, is a perfect example of Lost Cause writing, in which the Confederacy is unable to overcome the North’s vast advantage in men and resources. At the same time, the Lost Cause was primarily a creation of men from Virginia, so in turn they deified Lee and are widely responsible for Lee’s immense popularity today. And since Lee could do no wrong in their eyes, writers like Early looked for others to blame for the South’s loss, especially at Gettysburg, which was widely viewed then and now as the chief turning point of the war. For years, Early and James Longstreet argued in writing over who was to blame for the loss at Gettysburg, leading both men to attack each other in print.

Those who personally knew Early wouldn’t have been shocked by his writing. Though Lee admired Early and playfully referred to him as his “Bad Old Man” due to Early’s short temper, that same temper crossed many of Early’s subordinates. Early also alienated subordinates by being quick to point the finger at them for mistakes, even if they were his fault. Nevertheless, Early’s biography is a great read not just for the story it tells but also as one of the best examples of Lost Cause writing, and how the Lost Cause was developed in the years after the war.

“Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.” – Inscription on Sir Isaac Newton’s tomb.

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors’ British Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of Great Britain’s most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

In 1676, Sir Isaac Newton famously wrote in a letter to philosopher Robert Hooke, “If I have seen further it is by standing on ye sholders of Giants.” By the time he died, Newton had become science’s greatest giant, and every scientist who has followed him has stood on his shoulders.

Newton is widely considered the most influential scientist in history, best known for the discovery of gravity and the subsequent laws of motion that he theorized. Schoolchildren around the world are still taught the famous legend about an apple falling on Newton’s head, but that colorful story and the preoccupation with Newton’s work in physics tend to make people forget Newton’s work in other fields. Using empirical studies, Newton developed theories about light prisms, how matter cools, and even tried studying and calculating the speed of sound. And those are just the sciences; Newton also helped develop several mathematical fields, including calculus.     

When looking at Newton’s work, it’s easy to forget that he was also a man with typical human emotions and convictions. Though religion and science are often seen as antagonistic counterparts, Newton was very religious, and he intently studied the Bible and even occultist practices and theories. Newton wrote at length on these topics, which fascinated him so much that he spent more time writing about them than he did science and mathematics.

British Legends: The Life and Legacy of Sir Isaac Newton chronicles the amazing life and legacy of a man whose work helped propel the Scientific Revolution and modern physics, but it also humanizes him and looks at his non-scientific work as well. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events in his life, you will learn about Sir Isaac Newton like you never have before, in no time at all.

“The walls of Sparta were its young men, and its borders the points of their spears.” – attributed to King Agesilaos

There have been no shortage of great warrior societies in history, including the Romans, Mongols, Macedonians, and Vikings, the list goes on. Yet one humble city in particular, nestled in a valley near the Eurotas river in the Greek region of the Peloponnese and once ridiculed as little more than a cluster of villages inhabited by uncouth shepherds, produced the most famous warrior elite the world has ever known.

The most unique city-state in Ancient Greece was Sparta, which continues to fascinate contemporaneous society.  It is not entirely clear why Sparta placed such a great emphasis on having a militaristic society, but the result was that military fitness was a preoccupation from birth.  If a Spartan baby did not appear physically fit at birth, it was left to die.  Spartan children underwent military training around the age of 7 years old, and every male had to join the army around the age of 18. 

The Spartans, whose carefully constructed approach to warfare and – there is no other word for it – Spartan way of life, earned the grudging admiration of all of Greece and succeeded in establishing themselves in the years following the reforms of the semi-legendary ruler Lycurgus as the greatest military force in all of Hellas. Athens might have the mightiest fleet and the greatest cadre of philosophers and dramatists, Thessaly might have had the most vaunted cavalry, and the great city-states of Argos, Thebes and Corinth all had their own claims to fame, but on the battlefield the Spartan phalanx stood without peer. So feared were they in Greece that their very appearance on the battlefield could cause entire enemy armies to flee in terror, and in one of history’s most famous battles, 300 Spartan warriors headed a combined Greek force which held off the hundreds of thousands of Persian warriors of Xerxes’s invading army for three days at Thermopylae, inflicting an estimated 20,000 casualties upon them before dying to the last man rather than retreating.

Sparta will forever be known for its military prowess, but they had lives off the battlefield as well, and their way of life was also unique. For example, Spartan females were formally educated, which was a rarity among the city-states, and the Spartan way of life was entirely dependent on a class of indentured servants known as the helots. Yet the Laws of Lycurgus, which ordered all Spartans to disregard art (with the exception of song, which the Spartans prized, and some forms of music and poetry), to distrust philosophy, and to abhor excess in all things, were designed to create the perfect warrior society, and they did. As a result, the Spartans became notorious for “Laconic phrases”

The World’s Greatest Civilizations: The History and Culture of Ancient Sparta comprehensively covers the history and culture of the famous Greek city-state, looking at their religious, political, and military past, and examining all their accomplishments. Along with historic artwork depicting important people, places, and events, The History and Culture of Ancient Sparta will bring readers up to speed on Ancient Sparta today.    

"Standing on the bare ground, — my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space, — all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God." – Ralph Waldo Emerson

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors’ American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America’s most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

In the mid-19th century, Romantic literature was still in full bloom across the West, but some American authors began producing literature that, while still Romantic, was unique enough to be considered a different genre.  This new genre, Transcendentalism, focused on the spirituality of the self and nature, not rejecting religion outright but concentrating on pragmatism and the importance of individuals as the spiritual center of the cosmos.  In addition to drawing upon the Age of Enlightenment, Transcendentalist authors also utilized the philosophy of Plato, who taught that self-fulfillment through attaining knowledge should be an individual’s ultimate goal.

The leader of Transcendentalism and the man who ushered the movement’s practices and literature was Ralph Waldo Emerson (1802-1883), one of America’s most famous writers and speakers. Whereas Romantic literature typically took the form of poetry, novels and short stories, much of Emerson’s writings disregarded those traditional structures and were written as essays. Emerson initiated Transcendentalism with the publishing of his essay Nature in 1836, which espoused the virtues of nature and the interconnectedness of all life in nature. With his focus on the environment and natural history, Emerson became the first major American writer whose work was not influenced in any way by European literature. 

But Emerson didn’t just write Transcendentalist literature; he practiced what he preached. Now at the forefront of a movement, Emerson established group meetings, gave a series of lectures, and helped produce a Transcendentalist publication in the 1840s, which included his famous essay Self-Reliance. As Emerson’s movement and stature grew, he befriended other authors, including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Louisa May Alcott, and Henry David Thoreau, who became his greatest protégé.  Thoreau in particular took a keen interest in the idea of getting in touch with nature, writing in Walden, “Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind." 

American Legends: The Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson looks at the life and work of Emerson and the movement he helped lead. Along with pictures, you will learn about Ralph Waldo Emerson like you never have before, in no time at all.

“Friends and comrades! On that side [south] are toil, hunger, nakedness, the drenching storm, desertion, and death; on this side ease and pleasure. There lies Peru with its riches; here, Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian. For my part, I go to the south.” – Francisco Pizarro

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? The Age of Exploration and the explorers who set out on their history-making expeditions left many legacies and profoundly influenced history around the world. The voyages of men like Columbus and the conquests of men like Cortés had dramatic consequences for the natives, escalated tensions between the European nations, initiated imperialistic empires on a global scale, helped birth the United States, and ensured that the wars in the 20th century were truly world wars. In Charles River Editors’ Legendary Explorers series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of the most important explorers of history in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

During the Age of Exploration, some of the most famous and infamous individuals were Spain’s best known conquistadors. Naturally, as one of the best known conquistadors, Francisco Pizarro (1471/6-1541) is also one of the most controversial. Like Christopher Columbus and Hernan Cortés before him, Pizarro was celebrated in Europe for subduing the Inca Empire, a culture that fascinated his contemporaries. At the same time, naturally, indigenous views of the man have been overwhelmingly negative.

. If Columbus and Cortés were the pioneers of Spain’s new global empire, Pizarro consolidated its immense power and riches, and his successes inspired a further generation to expand Spain’s dominions to unheard of dimensions.  Furthermore, he participated in the forging of a new culture: like Cortés, he took an indigenous mistress with whom he had two mixed-race children, and yet the woman has none of the lasting fame of Cortés’s Doña Marina.  With all of this in mind, it is again remarkable that Pizarro remains one of the less well-known and less written about of the explorers of his age.

On the other hand, there are certain factors that may account for the conqueror of Peru’s relative lack of lasting glory.  For one, he was a latecomer in more than one sense.  Cortés’s reputation was built on being the first to overthrow a great empire, so Pizarro’s similar feat, even if it bore even greater fruit in the long run, would always be overshadowed by his predecessor’s precedent.  But Pizarro also lacked the youthful glamour of Cortés: already a wizened veteran in his 50s by the time he undertook his momentous expedition, he proceeded with the gritty determination of a hardened soldier rather than the audacity and cunning of a young courtier. 

Legendary Explorers: The Life and Legacy of Francisco Pizarro chronicles Pizarro’s life, but it also examines the aftermath of his conquest and analyzes the controversy surrounding his legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events in his life, you will learn about Pizarro like you never have before, in no time at all. 

During the Age of Exploration, some of the most famous and infamous individuals were Spain’s best known conquistadors. Naturally, as the best known conquistador, Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) is also the most controversial. Like Christopher Columbus before him, Cortés was lionized for his successes for centuries without questioning his tactics or motives, while indigenous views of the man have been overwhelmingly negative for the consequences his conquests had on the Aztecs and other natives in the region. Just about the only thing everyone agrees upon is that Cortés had a profound impact on the history of North America.

Of course, the lionization and demonization of Cortés often take place without fully analyzing the man himself, especially because there are almost no contemporaneous sources that explain what his thinking and motivation was. If anything, Cortés seemed to have been less concerned with posterity or the effects of the Spanish conquest on the natives than he was on relations with the Mother Country itself. Of the few things that are known about Cortés, it appears that he was both extremely ambitious and fully cognizant of politics and political intrigue, even in a New World thousands of miles west of Spain itself. Cortés spent much of his time in Mexico and the New World defending himself against other Spanish officials in the region, as well as trying to portray and position himself in a favorable light back home.

While those ambitions and politics understandably colored his writings about his activities and conquests, scholars nevertheless use what he wrote to gain a better understanding of the indigenous natives he came into contact with. Even then, however, what he wrote was scarce; Cortés''s account of his conquest of Mexico is comprised of five letters he addressed to the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. As Adolph Francis Bandelier noted in the Catholic Encyclopedia in 1908, “Cortés was a good writer. His letters to the emperor, on the conquest, deserve to be classed among the best Spanish documents of the period. They are, of course, coloured so as to place his own achievements in relief, but, withal, he keeps within bounds and does not exaggerate, except in matters of Indian civilization and the numbers of population as implied by the size of the settlements. Even there he uses comparatives only, judging from outward appearances and from impressions.”

If Columbus and Cortés were the pioneers of Spain’s new global empire, Pizarro consolidated its immense power and riches, and his successes inspired a further generation to expand Spain’s dominions to unheard of dimensions.  Furthermore, he participated in the forging of a new culture: like Cortés, he took an indigenous mistress with whom he had two mixed-race children, and yet the woman has none of the lasting fame of Cortés’s Doña Marina.  With all of this in mind, it is again remarkable that Pizarro remains one of the less well-known and less written about of the explorers of his age.

On the other hand, there are certain factors that may account for the conqueror of Peru’s relative lack of lasting glory.  For one, he was a latecomer in more than one sense.  Cortés’s reputation was built on being the first to overthrow a great empire, so Pizarro’s similar feat, even if it bore even greater fruit in the long run, would always be overshadowed by his predecessor’s precedent.  But Pizarro also lacked the youthful glamour of Cortés: already a wizened veteran in his 50s by the time he undertook his momentous expedition, he proceeded with the gritty determination of a hardened soldier rather than the audacity and cunning of a young courtier. 

The most seminal event of the last millennium might also be its most controversial. As schoolchildren have been taught for over 500 years, “In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue.” In October of that year, the Italian Christopher Columbus immortalized himself by landing in the New World and beginning the process of European settlement in the Americas for Spain, bringing the Age of Exploration to a new hemisphere with him. Ironically, the Italian had led a Spanish expedition, in part because the Portugese rejected his offers in the belief that sailing west to Asia would take too long.

Columbus had better luck with the Spanish royalty, successfully persuading Queen Isabella to commission his expedition. In August 1492, Columbus set west for India at the helm of the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria. Befitting a legendary trip, the journey was star-crossed from the beginning. The Pinta’s rudder broke early on, and just days into the journey Columbus’ compass stopped pointing due north and started pointing to the Earth’s magnetic north pole, something the Europeans knew nothing about. Columbus knew that the uncertainty of the expedition’s destination made his crew nervous, so he hid his compass’ “malfunction” from his crew.  Additionally, after 30 days of sailing, the expedition still had not sighted land, so Columbus started lying to his crew about the distance they sailed each day, telling them they had sailed fewer miles than they actually had so as not to scare them even more. 

On October 7, 1492, the three ships spotted flocks of birds, suggesting land was nearby, so Columbus followed the direction in which the birds flew. On the night of October 11, the expedition sighted land, and when Columbus came ashore the following day in the Bahamas, he thought he was in Japan, but the natives he came into contact with belied the descriptions of the people and lands of Asia as wealthy and resourceful. Instead, the bewildered Columbus would note in his journal that the natives painted their bodies, wore no clothes and had primitive weapons, leading him to the conclusion they would be easily converted to Catholicism. When he set sail for home in January 1493, he brought several imprisoned natives back to Spain with him.

During the Age of Exploration, some of the most famous and infamous individuals were Spain’s best known conquistadors. Naturally, as the best known conquistador, Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) is also the most controversial. Like Christopher Columbus before him, Cortés was lionized for his successes for centuries without questioning his tactics or motives, while indigenous views of the man have been overwhelmingly negative for the consequences his conquests had on the Aztecs and other natives in the region. Just about the only thing everyone agrees upon is that Cortés had a profound impact on the history of North America.

If Columbus and Cortés were the pioneers of Spain’s new global empire, Pizarro consolidated its immense power and riches, and his successes inspired a further generation to expand Spain’s dominions to unheard of dimensions.  Furthermore, he participated in the forging of a new culture: like Cortés, he took an indigenous mistress with whom he had two mixed-race children, and yet the woman has none of the lasting fame of Cortés’s Doña Marina.  With all of this in mind, it is again remarkable that Pizarro remains one of the less well-known and less written about of the explorers of his age.

On the other hand, there are certain factors that may account for the conqueror of Peru’s relative lack of lasting glory.  For one, he was a latecomer in more than one sense.  Cortés’s reputation was built on being the first to overthrow a great empire, so Pizarro’s similar feat, even if it bore even greater fruit in the long run, would always be overshadowed by his predecessor’s precedent. 

"The people can never understand why the President does not use his powers to make them behave. Well all the president is, is a glorified public relations man who spends his time flattering, kissing, and kicking people to get them to do what they are supposed to do anyway.” – Harry Truman

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors’ American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America’s most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

Among America’s presidents, Harry Truman’s presidency produced some of the nation’s most crucial decisions and left one of the nation’s most unique legacies. When President Franklin Roosevelt died in April 1945, Vice President Truman, somewhat unprepared for the Presidency, now had to fill some of the biggest shoes in American history. Incredibly, Truman had not been informed of the country’s secret attempt to build atomic bombs, confiding in his diary after learning about it, “We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.”

The new president had to usher America through victory in Europe in his first month and decide to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki a few months later, but the end of World War II produced only the first of many consequential decisions Truman would face during his nearly 8 years in office. As president, Truman would lay the groundwork for the next 50 years of American foreign policy, as the architect of Cold War containment, the man who signed off on the Marshall Plan, and the commander-in-chief during much of the Korean War. He would also be the president who finally integrated the military, a crucial step on the way to full civil rights for the country’s minorities.

These accomplishments have earned Truman admiration and praise from most historians today, but the Korean War in particular made him especially unpopular during much of his presidency. To this day, his most memorable picture was a byproduct of his upset victory over Dewey in the 1948 election, with Truman holding up a Chicago Tribune newspaper incorrectly asserting, “Dewey Defeats Truman.” While Americans today mostly remember that iconic picture and fondly recall “Give Em Hell Harry” and his memorable quotes, Truman would actually finish his presidency with historically low approval ratings.

American Legends: The Life of Harry Truman chronicles the amazing life and career of a Midwesterner with humble roots who rose through party politics to become one of the most important presidents of the 20th century. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Harry Truman like you never have before, in no time at all.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt might be America’s greatest 20th century president, but there’s no question that he was the most unique. A well-connected relative of Theodore Roosevelt, FDR was groomed for greatness until he was struck down by polio. Nevertheless, he persevered, rising through New York politics to reach the White House just as the country faced its greatest challenge since the Civil War, beginning his presidency with one of the most iconic lines ever spoken during an inaugural address.  

For over a decade, President Roosevelt threw everything he had at the Great Depression, and then threw everything the country had at the Axis powers during World War II. Ultimately, he succumbed to illness in the middle of his fourth term, just before the Allies won the war.

Among America’s presidents, Harry Truman’s presidency produced some of the nation’s most crucial decisions and left one of the nation’s most unique legacies. When President Franklin Roosevelt died in April 1945, Vice President Truman, somewhat unprepared for the Presidency, now had to fill some of the biggest shoes in American history. Incredibly, Truman had not been informed of the country’s secret attempt to build atomic bombs, confiding in his diary after learning about it, “We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.”

The new president had to usher America through victory in Europe in his first month and decide to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki a few months later, but the end of World War II produced only the first of many consequential decisions Truman would face during his nearly 8 years in office. As president, Truman would lay the groundwork for the next 50 years of American foreign policy, as the architect of Cold War containment, the man who signed off on the Marshall Plan, and the commander-in-chief during much of the Korean War. He would also be the president who finally integrated the military, a crucial step on the way to full civil rights for the country’s minorities.

These accomplishments have earned Truman admiration and praise from most historians today, but the Korean War in particular made him especially unpopular during much of his presidency. To this day, his most memorable picture was a byproduct of his upset victory over Dewey in the 1948 election, with Truman holding up a Chicago Tribune newspaper incorrectly asserting, “Dewey Defeats Truman.” While Americans today mostly remember that iconic picture and fondly recall “Give Em Hell Harry” and his memorable quotes, Truman would actually finish his presidency with historically low approval ratings.

Over the last 2,000 years, ambitious men have dreamed of forging vast empires and attaining eternal glory in battle, but of all the conquerors who took steps toward such dreams, none were ever as successful as antiquity’s first great conqueror. Leaders of the 20th century hoped to rival Napoleon’s accomplishments, while Napoleon aimed to emulate the accomplishments of Julius Caesar. But Caesar himself found inspiration in Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), the Macedonian King who managed to stretch an empire from Greece to the Himalayas in Asia at just 30 years old. It took less than 15 years for Alexander to conquer much of the known world.

As fate would have it, Alexander died of still unknown causes at the height of his conquests, when he was still in his early 30s. Although his empire was quickly divided, his legacy only grew, and Alexander became the stuff of legends even in his own time. Alexander was responsible for establishing 20 cities in his name across the world, most notably Alexandria in Egypt, and he was directly responsible for spreading Ancient Greek culture as far east as modern day India and other parts of Asia. For the ancient world, Alexander became the emblem of military greatness and accomplishment; it was reported that many of Rome’s greatest leaders, including Pompey the Great, Augustus, and Caesar himself all visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria, a mecca of sorts for antiquity’s other leaders.

In the history of war, only a select few men always make the list of greatest generals. Napoleon. Caesar. Alexander. They are always joined by Hannibal, who has the distinction of being the only man who nearly brought Rome to its knees before its decline almost 700 years later. Rome never suffered a more horrifying defeat in its history than at Cannae, and indeed, Hannibal nearly rewrote the course of Western history during the Second Punic War. Even today there remains great debate on just how he accomplished his masterful invasion of Italy across the Alps. Since his army included war elephants, historians still argue over exactly where and how he crossed over 2,000 years after he managed that incredible feat.

Hannibal will always be listed among history’s greatest generals, and his military campaign in Italy during the Second Punic War will always be studied, but part of the aura and mystique surrounding the Carthaginian legend is that there is still a lot of mystery. Since Carthage was destroyed by Rome a generation after Hannibal, most of what is known about Hannibal came from the very people he tormented in the late 2nd century B.C., and thus much of his background and life story is unknown. Moreover, while military historians are still amazed that he was able to maintain his army in Italy near Rome for nearly 15 years, scholars are still puzzled over some of his decisions, including why he never attempted to march on Rome in the first place.

Possibly the most important man of antiquity, and even all of history, was Julius Caesar. Alexander Hamilton, the famous American patriot, once remarked that “the greatest man who ever lived was Julius Caesar”. Such a tribute, coming from one of the Founding Fathers of the quintessential modern democracy in reference to a man who destroyed the Roman Republic, is testament to the enduring mark that Caesar left upon the world. The ultimate conqueror, statesman, dictator, visionary, and opportunist, during his time in power Caesar expanded the borders of Rome to almost twice their previous size, revolutionized the infrastructure of the Roman state, and destroyed the Roman Republic for good, leaving a line of emperors in its place. His legacy is so strong that his name has become, in many languages, synonymous with power: the Emperors of Austria and Germany bore the title Kaiser, and the Czars of Russia also owe the etymology of their title to Caesar.  

"A child born to a black mother in a state like Mississippi…has the same rights as a white baby born to the wealthiest person in the United States. It''s not true, but I challenge anyone to say it is not a goal worth working for.” – Thurgood Marshall

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors’ American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America’s most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

In the United States, the Civil Rights Movement is sometimes conveniently and narrowly remembered as a mid-20th century phenomenon that began with the 1954 Supreme Court decision invalidating segregation in Brown v. Board, but it actually came into existence long before it is presumed to have done so. In fact, the Movement''s primary work was slow, evolving, gradual and long-term. Its more glamorous moments, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956), the Selma to Montgomery March (1965), and the March on Washington (1963), were mainly supplemental to the all-important grassroots work already going on in communities, churches, legislatures and courts.

Nobody is a bigger testament to that fact than Thurgood Marshall, the African-American lawyer who successfully argued the Brown v. Board case. Today Marshall is best known for being the first black Supreme Court justice, but that history setting precedent has come to overshadow the instrumental work he did as chief counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Marshall argued more cases before the Supreme Court than anyone in history and would win nearly 30 of them, including the seminal Brown v. Board case.

Marshall was eventually appointed as an appellate justice by President Kennedy and was a very natural choice for the Supreme Court when President Lyndon Johnson appointed him. The appointment of Marshall made history, but Marshall left an indelible mark on American jurisprudence as a liberal anchor on the court for more than two decades. Naturally, he was a progressive voice on the issue of civil rights, and he also took strong stances on criminal procedure cases, including ardent opposition against the death penalty and the strengthening of legal protections for criminal defendants.

American Legends: The Life of Thurgood Marshall chronicles the amazing life and career of the first black Supreme Court Justice, examining his work and legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Thurgood Marshall like you never have before, in no time at all.

Ayn Rand (1905-1982)

"Government ‘help’ to business is just as disastrous as government persecution... the only way a government can be of service to national prosperity is by keeping its hands off.” – Ayn Rand

Ayn Rand was born in St. Petersburg, Russia to Jewish parents on February 2, 1905 as Alisa Zinov''yevna Rosenbaum, and she lived through the turbulence and transformation of early 20th century Russia.  Her first exposure to reading came after she taught herself how to read at age six, and she decided at nine years old to become a writer after a chance encounter with the books of Victor Hugo, the writer she admired most. 

The seminal events in the young would-be writer’s life came just a few years later, when she witnessed firsthand the Bolshevik Revolution and the ultimate Communist victory as a teenager. Rand’s experience with the maelstrom of this revolutionary zeal and cultural breakdown greatly contributed toward the formation of Rand’s philosophy of objectivism, individualism and anti-religious ideas. During her last year of high school, she was introduced to the history of the United States and immediately decided to make America her model of what an ideal society should look like. Rand came to the United States as a young woman for a visit in 1925, and, as fate would have it, she never returned to Russia. 

In middle age, Rand continued trying to write in some capacity as a profession, but she had also formed her personal philosophy of integrating ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, politics, economics, and sexuality into what came to be called Objectivism, or as she called it, “a philosophy for living on earth.” Rand began writing Atlas Shrugged, her enormous three part major novel, each with ten chapters, in 1946.  Nearly 10 years after it was begun she finished what ultimately became her greatest achievement, and she poignantly dramatized her unique philosophy.

Though Atlas Shrugged had been a popular title when Ayn Rand published it in 1957, it’s quite possible that the only reference to it that many Americans heard before 2009 came from the hit series Mad Men. However, this staple of conservative and libertarian reader took on new life as the new Obama Administration sought to use government resources to fix financial problems. In 2009, with the global economy hemorrhaging jobs, and Western governments pouring hundreds of billions of dollars in taxpayer money to “bail out” troubled financial firms and large companies, frustrated people and political analysts turned to a book written over 50 years earlier as a guide out of the abyss.

Conservative politicians like Ron Paul (who named his son after Rand) and commentators like Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh publicly praised Rand and her works, and Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas labeled Atlas Shrugged one of his favorite novels. By January 2009, one article in the Wall Street Journal was titled, “"Atlas Shrugged From Fiction to Fact in 52 Years". Over the last few years, Rand has become a household name and her works have seen their sales spike. Rand and her work are now some of the most influential and relevant works in America today.

Ayn Rand & Atlas Shrugged chronicles the life, ideology and writings of the most famous Libertarian writer, examining her work and her enduring legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Ayn Rand and her magnum opus like you never have before, in no time at all.

"Government ‘help’ to business is just as disastrous as government persecution... the only way a government can be of service to national prosperity is by keeping its hands off.” – Ayn Rand

Ayn Rand was born in St. Petersburg, Russia to Jewish parents on February 2, 1905 as Alisa Zinov''yevna Rosenbaum, and she lived through the turbulence and transformation of early 20th century Russia.  Her first exposure to reading came after she taught herself how to read at age six, and she decided at nine years old to become a writer after a chance encounter with the books of Victor Hugo, the writer she admired most. 

The seminal events in the young would-be writer’s life came just a few years later, when she witnessed firsthand the Bolshevik Revolution and the ultimate Communist victory as a teenager. Rand’s experience with the maelstrom of this revolutionary zeal and cultural breakdown greatly contributed toward the formation of Rand’s philosophy of objectivism, individualism and anti-religious ideas. During her last year of high school, she was introduced to the history of the United States and immediately decided to make America her model of what an ideal society should look like. Rand came to the United States as a young woman for a visit in 1925, and, as fate would have it, she never returned to Russia. 

In middle age, Rand continued trying to write in some capacity as a profession, but she had also formed her personal philosophy of integrating ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, politics, economics, and sexuality into what came to be called Objectivism, or as she called it, “a philosophy for living on earth.” Rand began writing Atlas Shrugged, her enormous three part major novel, each with ten chapters, in 1946.  Nearly 10 years after it was begun she finished what ultimately became her greatest achievement, and she poignantly dramatized her unique philosophy.

Though Atlas Shrugged had been a popular title when Ayn Rand published it in 1957, it’s quite possible that the only reference to it that many Americans heard before 2009 came from the hit series Mad Men. However, this staple of conservative and libertarian reader took on new life as the new Obama Administration sought to use government resources to fix financial problems. In 2009, with the global economy hemorrhaging jobs, and Western governments pouring hundreds of billions of dollars in taxpayer money to “bail out” troubled financial firms and large companies, frustrated people and political analysts turned to a book written over 50 years earlier as a guide out of the abyss.

Conservative politicians like Ron Paul (who named his son after Rand) and commentators like Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh publicly praised Rand and her works, and Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas labeled Atlas Shrugged one of his favorite novels. By January 2009, one article in the Wall Street Journal was titled, “"Atlas Shrugged From Fiction to Fact in 52 Years". Over the last few years, Rand has become a household name and her works have seen their sales spike. Rand and her work are now some of the most influential and relevant works in America today.

The Voice of Libertarians chronicles the life, ideology and writings of the most famous Libertarian writer, examining her work and her enduring legacy. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Ayn Rand like you never have before, in no time at all.

 “My goal is simple. It is a complete understanding of the universe, why it is as it is and why it exists at all.” -  Stephen Hawking

From the dawn of time, man has sought to understand the Universe and his place in it. How did the Earth and the Solar System come to be? How was the Universe created? 

 Like other scientific disciplines, astronomy and astrophysics is one big detective story.  Hypotheses are formed, observations taken, and experiments performed in the search for universal laws that describe all that we see.  A good hypothesis or theory will make predictions of future observations, the results of which will either refute the theory, or be consistent with it.  Astronomy is at a distinct disadvantage over other branches of science in one crucial way:  for the most part, our observations only consist of photons (i.e. light) from far away sources, rarely can we touch and manipulate the things we observe, and thus create our own controls for an “experiment”.  We must wait for those far-away objects to cooperate.  The light must be analyzed in many different ways (variations in space, time, intensity and frequency  to name just a few), comparing different objects with one another, and making informed opinions upon the results.  The light over the whole electromagnetic spectrum from a particular “target” must be explained in a consistent way using the laws of physics, and often it''s back to the telescope for a new set of observations when some part of the theory proves inadequate.  Or, back to some intensive computations.  Nevertheless, astronomers and astrophysicists have done remarkably well over the last couple of centuries, allowing us to present an overview of how the Universe functions.

In this resourceful guide, common questions about the Universe will be explained in comprehensive but easy to understand terms. You’ll learn the answers to some of the most important questions, including:

*How do stars form?

*What happens when stars die?

*What do we know about the origin of the universe?

*What is dark matter and why do we suppose it exists?

*How does our solar system fit into the Milky Way Galaxy?

*What galaxies are around us, and how are galaxies classified?

*What is the cosmological principle?

The Illustrated Guide to Understanding Astrophysics and the Universe gives an entertaining and educational overview of our Universe, from the smallest matter to massive black holes, and everything in between.  Whether you are an experienced amateur or a complete novice, let The Illustrated Guide to Understanding Astrophysics and the Universe be your guide to the stars.

"A living dog is better than a dead lion. Shall a man go and hang himself because he belongs to the race of pygmies, and not be the biggest pygmy that he can? Let every one mind his own business, and endeavor to be what he was made. Why should we be in such desperate haste to succeed and in such desperate enterprises? If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer. Let him step to the music which he hears, however measured or far away." – Henry David Thoreau

A lot of ink has been spilled covering the lives of history’s most influential figures, but how much of the forest is lost for the trees? In Charles River Editors’ American Legends series, readers can get caught up to speed on the lives of America’s most important men and women in the time it takes to finish a commute, while learning interesting facts long forgotten or never known.

In the mid-19th century, Romantic literature was still in full bloom across the West, but some American authors began producing literature that, while still Romantic, was unique enough to be considered a different genre.  This new genre, Transcendentalism, focused on the spirituality of the self and nature, not rejecting religion outright but concentrating on pragmatism and the importance of individuals as the spiritual center of the cosmos.  In addition to drawing upon the Age of Enlightenment, Transcendentalist authors also utilized the philosophy of Plato, who taught that self-fulfillment through attaining knowledge should be an individual’s ultimate goal.

One of the most famous Transcendentalists, and possibly its most ardent practitioner, was Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862). As a protégé of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau took the values of the movement to heart and was particularly interested in the interconnection between man and nature, writing in Walden, “Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind." That famous work was Thoreau’s account of his experience living for two years in a small cabin in a forest along the shore of Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts.

In 1846, Thoreau was arrested for failing to pay taxes, which was based on his opposition to slavery and other ways the government spent taxpayers’ money. After being freed, he gave a lecture about the roles of governments and individuals in society, which eventually became the famous essay “Civil Disobedience.” In addition to rejecting any government “which is the slave''s government also," Thoreau famously advocated “the majority of one”, calling upon people to break unjust laws. As fate would have it, Thoreau’s message of civil disobedience has resonated more than any of his other Transcendentalist values, and it had a profound influence on the philosophy and nonviolent protests of activists like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.

American Legends: The Life of Henry David Thoreau looks at the life and work of Thoreau, and it examines his ideology and the Transcendentalist movement. Along with pictures of important people and places, you will learn about Thoreau like you never have before, in no time at all.

In the mid-19th century, Romantic literature was still in full bloom across the West, but some American authors began producing literature that, while still Romantic, was unique enough to be considered a different genre.  This new genre, Transcendentalism, focused on the spirituality of the self and nature, not rejecting religion outright but concentrating on pragmatism and the importance of individuals as the spiritual center of the cosmos.  In addition to drawing upon the Age of Enlightenment, Transcendentalist authors also utilized the philosophy of Plato, who taught that self-fulfillment through attaining knowledge should be an individual’s ultimate goal.

The leader of Transcendentalism, and the man who ushered the movement’s practices and literature, was Ralph Waldo Emerson (1802-1883), one of America’s most famous writers and speakers. Whereas Romantic literature typically took the form of poetry, novels and short stories, Emerson often disregarded those traditional structures and wrote essays. Emerson initiated Transcendentalism with the publishing of his essay Nature in 1836, which espoused the virtues of nature and the interconnectedness of all life in nature. With his focus on the environment and natural history, Emerson became the first major American writer whose work was not influenced in any way by European literature. 

But Emerson didn’t just write Transcendentalist literature; he practiced what he preached. Now at the forefront of a movement, Emerson established group meetings, gave a series of lectures, and helped produce a Transcendentalist publication in the 1840s, which included his famous essay Self-Reliance. As Emerson’s movement and stature grew, he befriended other authors, including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Louisa May Alcott, and Henry David Thoreau, who became his greatest protégé. 

One of the most famous Transcendentalists, and possibly its most ardent practitioner, was Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862). As a protégé of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau took the values of the movement to heart and was particularly interested in the interconnection between man and nature, writing in Walden, “Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind." That famous work was Thoreau’s account of his experience living for two years in a small cabin in a forest along the shore of Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts.

In 1846, Thoreau was arrested for failing to pay taxes, which was based on his opposition to slavery and other ways the government spent taxpayers’ money. After being freed, he gave a lecture about the roles of governments and individuals in society, which eventually became the famous essay “Civil Disobedience.” In addition to rejecting any government “which is the slave''s government also," Thoreau famously advocated “the majority of one”, calling upon people to break unjust laws. As fate would have it, Thoreau’s message of civil disobedience has resonated more than any of his other Transcendentalist values, and it had a profound influence on the philosophy and nonviolent protests of activists like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Ralph Waldo Emerson & Henry David Thoreau looks at the life and work of Thoreau, and it examines his ideology and the Transcendentalist movement. Along with pictures of important people and places, you will learn about Thoreau like you never have before, in no time at all.

“Since it has pleased Providence to place me in this station, I shall do my utmost to fulfil my duty towards my country; I am very young and perhaps in many, though not in all things, inexperienced, but I am sure that very few have more real good will and more real desire to do what is fit and right than I have.” – Queen Victoria, 1837

England has had no shortage of influential monarchs, but only Queen Elizabeth I and Queen Victoria had their nation’s age literally named after them. Both the Elizabethan era and Victorian era have come to symbolize a golden age of peace and progress in every aspect of British life, with the long reigns of both queens also providing stability.

Of course, there was a critical difference between those two queens: Elizabeth I still wielded great power in the 16th century, whereas Victoria was a constitutional monarch with limited power over the workings of the British government. But in a way, that made Victoria even more unique, as she still proved able to mold the cultural identity of a nearly 65 year long epoch. Furthermore, Victoria established some of the ceremonial customs of the British monarch and became both the forerunner and role model of subsequent queens, a legacy that continues to endure with her great-great granddaughter, Queen Elizabeth II.

Though Britain’s longest reigning monarch is now mostly associated with conservative values (particularly strict morality and traditional social and gender roles), Victoria and her era oversaw the cultural and technological progress of Britain and the West in general, architectural revivals, and the expansion of imperialism. While some of these developments have been perceived negatively over a century later, Britons of the 19th century and early 20th century often viewed the Victorian Era as the height of their nation’s power and influence.     

British Legends: The Life and Legacy of Queen Victoria chronicles the life and reign of Queen Victoria, while examining the enduring legacy of the era in British history named after her. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events in her life, you will learn about Queen Victoria like you never have before, in no time at all.

Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts war der letzte große Krieg des legendären Sonnenkönigs Ludwig XIV. und zugleich der berühmteste aller militärischen Konflikte während seiner Regierungszeit. Die Dauer und der Umfang des Konflikts sind die Hauptgründe für die große Aufmerksamkeit, die ihm zuteil wurde. Ein weiterer Grund für seine historische Popularität ist zweifellos die Tatsache, dass der französische König durch den Ausgang des Krieges gedemütigt wurde, was seine Kritiker sehr erfreute. Schließlich war er es, der sich selbst den hochtrabenden Beinamen "Sonnenkönig" gegeben hatte.

In diesem langwierigen europäischen Konflikt standen sich König Ludwig XIV. aus der Bourbonendynastie und Kaiser Leopold aus der Habsburgerdynastie in Österreich sowie Leopolds britische und niederländische Verbündete gegenüber. Der Krieg dauerte 13 Jahre und erstreckte sich von Frankreich und Österreich über die ganze Welt. Im Mittelpunkt stand die Frage, was aus dem riesigen spanischen Reich nach dem Tod von König Karl II. werden sollte, der keinen offensichtlichen Nachfolger für seine Krone hatte.  Als Einzelkind, das selbst keine Kinder hatte, war Karl II. sein ganzes Leben lang kränklich gewesen, aber so geschwächt er auch war, er herrschte über ein reiches Reich, das sich über die gesamte Iberische Halbinsel erstreckte und europäische Gebiete in Italien und den Niederen Ländern, Land in Nordafrika, Nord- und Südamerika und sogar bis zu den Philippinen umfasste. Ein so riesiges und reiches Reich brauchte einen Herrscher, und als König Karl II. älter und schwächer wurde, wollten alle wissen, wer das sein würde.

Angesichts der jahrhundertealten Rivalität zwischen dem Königreich Frankreich und dem österreichischen Kaiserreich ist es nicht verwunderlich, dass diese beiden Mächte ein Auge auf den spanischen Thron geworfen haben. Da jede Seite den Anspruch erhob, der rechtmäßige Thronfolger zu sein, suchte man auf dem ganzen Kontinent zunächst nach einer friedlichen Lösung, um einen ausgewachsenen Konflikt zu vermeiden. Ende des XVII Jahrhunderts schien es, als würde die Diplomatie siegen und König Ludwig XIV. als Sieger hervorgehen, doch der stolze König machte einige unerwartete Fehler, die den Kontinent und schließlich die ganze Welt in einen langwierigen Krieg stürzten.

Tatsächlich war der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg einer der größten Kriege, die die Welt je gesehen hat. Die Kämpfe fanden in ganz Westeuropa, in Süddeutschland, auf den Balearen im Mittelmeer, in einem großen Teil der italienischen Halbinsel und sogar in Schottland, Westindien und Französisch-Kanada statt. Trotz des gewaltigen Ausmaßes des Konflikts und der Höhe des Einsatzes sind sich die meisten Historiker einig, dass der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg auf zivilisierte Weise ausgetragen wurde, so dass selbst Kriegsgefangene im Allgemeinen gut behandelt wurden. Die befehlshabenden Generäle beider Seiten kannten sich untereinander und betrachteten einige ihrer "Feinde" als Freunde und sogar als Familienangehörige.

Als der Krieg schließlich zu Ende war, freute sich das spanische Volk über den König, der den Sieg erklärte - eine zufriedenstellende Lösung nach 13 blutigen und teuren Jahren. Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg: Die Geschichte des Konflikts zwischen den Bourbonen und den Habsburgern, der Europa erschütterte, befasst sich mit den Ereignissen, die den Krieg auslösten, den großen Schlachten und den Ergebnissen. Zusammen mit Bildern, die wichtige Personen, Orte und Ereignisse zeigen, erfahren Sie mehr über den Spanischen Erbfolgekrieg als je zuvor.

European and American scholars are fascinated by her. She is exotic; they look at her with the romantic look of the anthropologist and the sociologist; she is Mexican, colorful, and third-worldly (not to mention that she is a fantastic reason to get funding from their universities). Many see in her, correctly, a prodigious syncretism, so common in the troubled history of Latin America. The Catholic hierarchy, the predominant religion in Mexico, is horrified; the church calls her a satanic cult figure, associated with organized crime. Similarly, governmental authorities watch cautiously, deny official recognition to her “churches,” and destroy her solitary shrines in northern Mexico, in roads riddled with crime. However, among her followers —besides prisoners, drug traffickers and many well-meaning men and women seeking other spiritual alternatives— there are some working on the side of the law, especially soldiers and police officers.

Enter La Santa Muerte, the “Holy Death”, a skeletal figure dressed like a Catholic saint, whom her faithful raised to the altars without asking anyone for permission. From her followers, she gets not only candles, prayers and petitions, as any other saint; they also call her loving names that to the outside observer would seem to be a joke: beautiful, skinny, cute girl, little mother, and at the height of the confusion, "virgin".

What then is the Santa Muerte movement? As a practice, it has borrowed extensively from Catholicism, Santeria and even New Age, depending on the leader of the moment and the region, from Central America to Chicago. In the variety most similar to Catholicism, people find images of the skeleton dressed in a green robe with stars and golden borders, with rays of light coming out of her head: a negative image of the Virgin of Guadalupe. "It''s our little mother, our skinny, she always takes care of us," says an anonymous woman who refers to Santa Muerte in the same way Mexican Catholics refer to The Virgin. Although fleshless, Santa Muerte is, without a doubt, a female figure (in the Spanish language, "death" is a feminine noun).

But the garments of the Virgin of Guadalupe are not the only thing that the "white girl" borrowed. In fact, one of the main features of this cult is its extraordinary elasticity. It will adapt to anything. Anyone can dogmatize. Everybody contributes according to his or her feelings and experiences. Young cholos (street punks) prefer a version more reminiscent of some Iron Maiden albums, and the elderly of the Tepito neighborhood, another more similar to those found at small town churches, with flowers in her hair, and a robe with embroidery. Therefore, for the casual observer watching the candles, the flowers, listening to the murmur of prayers and noticing the insistence on receiving miracles, Santa Muerte is like another Catholic saint, despite the fact the cult of the Holy Death is not only not approved by any Christian denomination but is not even tolerated.

One cannot approach the Santa Muerte movement without acknowledging its affiliation, real or not, to drug trafficking, violence and organized crime. For some, this is an undeniable fact; for others, a blatant attempt to discredit the cult. Although there´s no doubt that the movement is intimately related to the population that was or is currently in prison, and those who have a close relative behind bars (Kristensen, 2015), it´s more difficult to establish a relationship between the organized crime and Santa Muerte. Does the cult produce transgressors, like some point out, or did some of them adopt it to accommodate their inner world and justify their actions, since "she does not judge, you can ask her anything you want?”

A los académicos europeos y norteamericanos les fascina, por lo exótico, porque la miran con los románticos ojos del antropólogo y del sociólogo. Les atrae porque es mexicana, colorida, tercermundista. Además, es un fantástico proyecto para obtener financiamiento de sus universidades. Muchos ven en ella, correctamente, un intenso sincretismo, tan común en la historia de América Latina. A la jerarquía católica, la religión predominante en México, le repugna; la tacha de figura de culto satánico, asociada al crimen organizado; las autoridades gubernamentales la miran con recelo, le niegan reconocimiento oficial y destruyen sus solitarios santuarios en las carreteras plagadas de crimen del norte del país. No obstante, entre sus fieles —además de presos, narcotraficantes y muchas personas bien intencionadas que buscan alternativas espirituales— también hay algunos trabajando del lado de la ley, especialmente policías y soldados.

Se trata de la Santa Muerte, una esquelética figura vestida de santa católica, que sus devotos subieron a los altares sin pedir permiso de nadie; de ellos recibe no sólo veladoras, rezos y peticiones, como cualquier santo; también le dirigen palabras que para el observador externo parecerían broma: hermosa, flaquita, niña linda, madrecita, y en el colmo de la confusión, hasta “virgencita”.  

Definir lo que es una religión siempre ha sido una tarea complicada, pero si entendemos a ésta —al menos en parte— como un sistema de creencias totalizador sobre la creación y la propia existencia, el propósito y destino final de ambas cosas, y/o un sistema ético sobre conductas aceptables y no permitidas, el culto a la Santa Muerte está lejos de ser una religión. Tampoco es una secta, porque al parecer nadie, o casi nadie, tiene intenciones de crear un cisma con la iglesia católica; mucho menos de ofrecer otra interpretación de la Biblia; de hecho, la mayoría de sus devotos se declaran católicos. Tampoco es un “culto” en el sentido tradicional de la palabra: no hacen proselitismo activo, no tienen una figura carismática, no se entra bajo presión ni se le impide salir a nadie.  ¿Qué es entonces el movimiento de la Santa Muerte? 

Como práctica, ha copiado intensivamente del catolicismo, la santería e incluso del New Age, todo depende del líder en turno y de la región de la que estemos hablando, desde Centroamérica hasta Chicago. En la variedad más parecida al catolicismo, existen imágenes del esqueleto vestido con un manto verde con estrellas y borde dorado, y rayos de luz saliendo de su cabeza: una imagen en negativo de la Virgen de Guadalupe. “Es nuestra madrecita, nuestra flaquita, ella siempre nos cuida”, dice una mujer anónima que se refiere a la Santa Muerte de la misma forma en que los guadalupanos se refieren a María. Aunque descarnada, la Santa Muerte es, sin duda alguna, una figura femenina.

Pero no es sólo el atuendo de la Virgen de Guadalupe lo único que ha tomado prestado la “niña blanca”. De hecho, una de las características de este culto es su extraordinaria elasticidad. A todo se adapta. Cualquiera puede dogmatizar. Todos contribuyen de acuerdo a su sentir y experiencias. Los jóvenes cholos prefieren portar una imagen que recuerda más a las portadas de los álbums de Iron Maiden, y las ancianas de Tepito a la de algún altar de pueblo, con flores en la cabeza y manto con bordados. Por eso, para un observador despistado, al mirar las veladores, las flores, oír el murmuro de los rezos y notar la insistencia en obtener milagros, la Santa Muerte parecería un santo católico más. Pero el culto a la “flaquita” no sólo no es aprobado por ninguna denominación cristiana; ni siquiera es tolerado.

“A perseguição não é uma característica original em nenhuma religião; mas é sempre a característica fortemente marcada de todas as religiões estabelecidas por lei. ”- Thomas Paine, Direitos do HomemEm muitas sociedades modernas, leis foram postas em prática para proteger os cidadãos da discriminação com base em gênero, crenças, raça e sexualidade. A simples ideia de ter esses direitos impedidos de alguma forma é algo que as pessoas no Ocidente costumam considerar impensável. Nos dias de hoje, as pessoas vão lutar com unhas e dentes para corrigir os casos de discriminação e injustiça, desde a busca de uma ação legal até a instauração de processo criminal contra a parte discriminatória.Existem várias organizações em todo o mundo para ajudar a combater e proteger seus cidadãos de injustiças prejudiciais. A mídia social também se tornou um canal para as pessoas ao redor do mundo expressarem essas injustiças. Aqueles em todo o mundo que simpatizam com os discriminados se unem e condenam os intolerantes acusados. Boicotes, petições e reações negativas resultantes da mídia social e da Internet têm desempenhado um papel significativo na contribuição para a queda de indivíduos e empresas que foram acusados de discriminação de qualquer tipo.O caminho para a era moderna de harmonia e aceitação cultural é um dos melhores feitos do progresso humano, mas, dito isso, houve um tempo em que a mera dúvida da existência de uma figura religiosa não era apenas punível por lei, mas poderia muito bem custar a vida de um homem. Este era o crime de heresia. Esse tipo de perseguição religiosa existe há milhares de anos, e os cristãos costumavam ser as vítimas, mas quando a Igreja Católica começou sua rápida expansão pela Europa durante a Idade Média, a situação se inverteu. Em 1184, o Papa Lúcio III emitiu uma bula papal que daria início a uma longa tradição de caça aos hereges e, como resultado, a Era das Inquisições começou.Em uma reviravolta de eventos, os perseguidos se tornaram os perseguidores. A partir de então, a Igreja Católica Romana assumiu a responsabilidade de manter tribunais, ou cortes judiciais, em uma missão para exterminar a heresia de uma vez por todas. Acredita-se que essas inquisições, que assolariam a Europa por séculos, viram centenas de milhares de pessoas perseguidas por crenças que iam contra a Igreja. Uma parte surpreendente deles seria brutalmente torturada e enviada para a morte.Nenhum deles se compara ao que nasceu no século 15 - a Inquisição Espanhola. A notória inquisição, assunto de vários documentários, filmes e outros meios de cultura pop, é uma era obscuramente lembrada por sua opressão, tortura bárbara e tirania religiosa. Servindo de pano de fundo para tudo isso estava uma doença mortal, um homem semelhante a Satanás, e a tumultuada ascensão e queda de um dos períodos mais terríveis da história europeia.

Para mediados del siglo XV, el Imperio Bizantino se había derrumbado y las diversas Cruzadas que habían tenido lugar en la región habían trastocado el buen funcionamiento de las rutas terrestres del comercio y la Ruta de la Seda. Para agravar las dificultades, en lugar de los bizantinos surgió el Imperio otomano y el estalló la Muerte Negra en Europa.

Fue aproximadamente en esa época cuando comenzó un período de exploración en Europa. Los factores principales que contribuyeron a ese auge de la exploración se deben a los chinos, aunque de manera indirecta. La brújula magnética ya había sido desarrollada y utilizada por los navegantes chinos desde el siglo XII, aunque se había creado en el siglo III AC como un dispositivo para la adivinación. Luego, la Dinastía Song comenzó a usar ese instrumento para la navegación terrestre en el siglo XI, y poco después los marineros comenzaron a utilizarlo. El avance tecnológico se diseminó lentamente hacia el occidente a través de los comerciantes árabes, aunque se puede argumentar que la brújula también se creó de manera independiente en Europa (Southey 1812: 210). En cualquier caso, en el siglo XIII la brújula ya había llegado a manos de los comerciantes occidentales, justo en el momento en que la actividad comercial aumentaba en toda Europa.

El comercio europeo pudo aumentar en todo el mundo debido a la introducción de barcos más efectivos, y algunas de las mejoras que se hicieron a éstos fueron introducidas por primera vez por los chinos. La introducción de barcos de varios mástiles y timones de popa permitieron a los barcos viajar más rápido y hacerlos más maniobrables. A comienzos del siglo XV los barcos eran mucho más grandes y capaces de soportar viajes de gran distancia con un menor número de tripulantes a bordo.

Así, los portugueses comenzaron a explorar la costa oeste de África y el Atlántico bajo las órdenes del príncipe Enrique el Navegante. En este punto, los europeos aún no habían sido capaces de navegar completamente alrededor de África, ya que los barcos que se estaban construyendo todavía no eran capaces de navegar muy lejos de la costa y la navegación en aguas abiertas era difícil, pero los portugueses continuaron avanzando hacia el sur por la costa occidental africana buscando la manera de evitar a los otomanos y musulmanes de África, que habían estado dificultando las rutas comerciales por tierra. En 1451, el príncipe Enrique el Navegante ayudó a financiar y desarrollar un nuevo tipo de barco, la carabela, que contaba con velas de cuchillo triangulares y podía viajar en mar abierto y navegar contra el viento. En 1488 Bartolomé Díaz remontó el extremo sur de África, que fue nombrado Cabo de Buena Esperanza por el rey Juan de Portugal, y entró al Océano Índico desde el Atlántico.

Los portugueses habían conseguido acceso a las regiones comerciales que habían estado buscando, pero navegar de Portugal a la India y más allá requería demasiados recursos para llevar en un solo viaje. Para remediar este problema, Portugal comenzó a establecer una serie de fuertes y puestos comerciales a lo largo de la ruta. Los portugueses pudieron establecer un fuerte en la costa oeste de la India, Fort Manuel, en 1500, y en 1505 se erigió otro frente a la costa de Tanzania, comenzando así la colonización europea de África y Asia que duraría los siguientes 400 años.

El camino a la actual era moderna de respeto y aceptación culturales es una de las mayores hazañas del progreso humano, pero habiendo dicho esto, hubo un tiempo en que la mera duda de la existencia de una figura religiosa no sólo era castigable por ley, sino que también podía costarle la vida a un hombre.  

Em meados do século 15 o Império Bizantino entrou em colapso e as várias Cruzadas que aconteceram na região interromperam em grande parte as rotas terrestres da Rota da Seda e do comércio. Para agravar as dificuldades do comércio, estava a ascensão do Império Otomano no lugar dos bizantinos e a eclosão da Peste Negra na Europa.Foi mais ou menos nessa época que começou um período de exploração europeia, e os principais fatores que contribuíram para esse período de exploração foram introduzidos pelos chineses, embora indiretamente. A bússola magnética já havia sido desenvolvida e usada pelos marinheiros chineses desde o século 12 , embora tivesse sido criada no século 3 AC como um dispositivo de adivinhação. A Dinastia Song então começou a usar o dispositivo para navegação terrestre no século 11 e os marinheiros começaram a usá-la logo depois. A tecnologia se espalhou lentamente para o oeste por meio de comerciantes árabes, embora outra história possa ser contada sobre a criação europeia da bússola (Southey 1812: 210). Independentemente disso, por volta do século 13, a bússola encontrou seu valor nas mãos dos comerciantes ocidentais, surgindo em um momento em que o comércio estava aumentando em toda a Europa.O comércio pôde aumentar na Europa em todo o mundo devido à introdução de navios mais eficazes, e algumas das melhorias feitas nos navios foram introduzidas pela primeira vez pelos chineses. A introdução de navios com múltiplos mastros e leme de popa permitiu que os navios viajassem mais rapidamente e fossem mais manobráveis. No início do século 15, os navios eram muito maiores e capazes de suportar viagens de longa distância com um número mínimo de tripulantes a bordo.Com isso, os portugueses passaram a explorar a costa oeste da África e o Atlântico sob as ordens do Infante D. Henrique, o Navegador. Neste ponto, os europeus ainda não eram capazes de navegar completamente em torno da África, uma vez que os navios em construção ainda não eram totalmente capazes de navegar muito longe da costa e a navegação em águas abertas era difícil, mas os portugueses continuaram a empurrar os navios para a costa oeste da África procurando maneiras de contornar os otomanos e muçulmanos da África que vinham dificultando as rotas de comércio terrestre. Em 1451, o Infante D. Henrique ajudou a financiar e desenvolver um novo tipo de navio, a caravela, que apresentava velas latinas triangulares e que era capaz de viajar em mar aberto e navegar contra o vento.Em 1488, Bartolomeu Diaz contornou o extremo sul da África, batizado de Cabo da Boa Esperança pelo Rei João de Portugal, e entrou no Oceano Índico pelo Atlântico.Um explorador, Cristóvão Colombo, procurou financiamento dos portugueses para procurar uma passagem para a Ásia navegando para o oeste, mas foi rejeitado. Nesta época, no final do século 15, o domínio de Portugal das rotas marítimas da África Ocidental levou a vizinha Coroa de Castela e os monarcas católicos da Espanha moderna a procurar uma rota alternativa para o sul e leste da Ásia (denominado Índias) , então eles forneceram a Colombo o financiamento de que ele precisava. Por fim, Colombo descobriu as Américas em 1492, e os assentamentos espanhóis nas “Índias Ocidentais” acabariam sendo estabelecidos.

El espacio puede ser la frontera final, pero ninguna ha capturado la imaginación americana como el “Salvaje Oeste”, que todavía evoca imágenes de vaqueros polvorientos, forajidos, tiroteos, jugadores y peleas en el bar, más de 100 años después que el Oeste terminó de ser conquistado. Idea fija en la cultura pop americana, el Oeste Americano del siglo XIX continúa siendo vívida y coloridamente retratado, no solo como un lugar sino también como un estado de la mente. 

Incluso hoy en día, quien viaje por el Oeste hallará muchos rastros de los viejos tiempos. Pueblos fantasmas todavía permanecen de pie en partes remotas del desierto y la pradera, el arte rupestre de los nativos americanos todavía relata sus leyendas silenciosas, y las viejas minas de los buscadores aún puntean las faldas de las montañas. Algunos de los topónimos como Bloody Basin (“Tazón Sangriento”), en Arizona y Soldier’s Hill (“La Colina del Soldado”), en Nuevo México, tienen historias que contar. En noviembre de 2014, un afortunado arqueólogo en el Parque Nacional Great Basin, en Nevada, divisó un viejo rifle recostado de un pino; el sol y el viento habían envejecido la culata, hasta volverla tan gris como el tronco del árbol, casi invisible a los transeúntes. Cuando el arma fue examinada, resultó ser un rifle Winchester. El serial era todavía legible y los registros mostraron que había sido fabricado y despachado en 1882. Algún buscador o cazador había apoyado el rifle en el árbol, hacía más de un siglo, y nunca regresó a buscarlo. Había estado recostado allí desde entonces.

Con la misma popularidad de la que gozan hoy  la obras sobre el Oeste, el Salvaje Oeste capturó la imaginación de la gente incluso en esos días en los que realmente fue salvaje. Ya en el siglo XIX, su fama se extendió gracias a las novelas de diez centavos, diarios de viajeros, espectáculos del Salvaje Oeste, y obras de teatro, y la gente se emocionaba con relatos de exploraciones y tiroteos. Naturalmente, en el proceso de establecer la frontera, la aventura arrojó un número incontable de historias extrañas, desde relatos de monstruos y minas perdidas, a ciudades ocultas y hombres regresando de la muerte. Era un vasto, e inexplorado país, y muchos misterios podía esconder tanto en cordilleras sin cartografiar como en las aparentemente interminables llanuras.

El Extraño y Salvaje Oeste: Leyendas e historias estrambóticas acerca de la Frontera, es una colección de relatos sobre la frontera americana que van de lo probable a lo francamente ridículo. Algunos son adaptaciones de viejos cuentos folclóricos que los inmigrantes trajeron con ellos, o creaciones de ansiosos reporteros de prensa, pero muchos tienen de hecho alguna base. Junto con fotografías y una bibliografía, aprenderá de acerca del Extraño y Salvaje Oeste como nunca antes, y en poco tiempo.     

A lo largo del occidente del Mediterráneo se han descubierto gran número de objetos cuya apariencia o materiales son extraños a las culturas locales, ya sea un amuleto egipcio en Grecia, un vaso griego en África, o miles de extraños amuletos en Gibraltar. Los restos son evidencia de que una gran cantidad de productos fueron alguna vez movidos de un lugar a otro, transportados sistemáticamente y comerciados a lo largo del Mediterráneo por la antigua red comercial de los fenicios. Comenzando en el siglo 13 A.C., y continuando por más de un milenio, esta civilización dominó el más importante cuerpo de agua conocido por los antiguos. Con sus barcos formidables y sus habilidades comerciales, se hicieron famosos comerciando por entre Egipto, Grecia, Roma, Cartago, Cerdeña, España y finalmente hasta el océano Atlántico, estableciéndose como los señores indiscutibles del mar.

Una red de este tamaño, con cientos de colonias y miles de barcos, tenía que estar bien coordinada, y así fue, gracias a importantes ciudades a lo largo de la costa del Mediterráneo. Una de las más importantes y cruciales ciudades del sistema estaba escondida bajo las ruinas griegas, romanas y de los cruzados de El Líbano: la antigua ciudad de Tiro. “Sentada a la orilla del mar”, de acuerdo con el profeta Ezequiel, Tiro fue construida en una isla supuestamente impenetrable. Cuando Heródoto de Halicarnaso la visitó en el siglo 5º A.C., Tiro era considerada una de las metrópolis más antiguas y más ricas del mundo, y en verdad, la ciudad puede ser directamente asociada con algunas de las más importantes etapas de la historia de la humanidad: el descubrimiento del alfabeto; el descubrimiento del pigmento de color morado conocido como el morado tirio; la construcción en Jerusalén del templo de Salomón; y la exploración de los mares por valientes navegantes que viajaron tan lejos como el Mediterráneo occidental y fundaron centros de comercio en Utica, Cádiz y Cartago—una ciudad que a la larga aseguraría un monopolio de control fenicio sobre el comercio marítimo en la región, pero que eventualmente superaría el poder de su fundadora. Hoy, Tiro es mejor conocida por el famoso sitio que adelantó Alejandro Magno de Macedonia, quien bloqueó los estrechos entre la isla y la tierra firme antes de su asalto final. Convertida entonces en una ciudad griega, siguió en el año 64 A.C. el dominio romano, y más tarde se construyó una fortaleza de los cruzados en este sitio cargado de historia.

De todos los pueblos del antiguo cercano oriente, los fenicios están entre los más reconocidos, pero quizás también entre los menos comprendidos. Los fenicios nunca construyeron un imperio como los egipcios y los asirios; de hecho, los fenicios nunca crearon un estado fenicio único, en cambio existieron como ciudades-estados que eran reinos independientes, dispersos por toda la región del Mediterráneo. Sin embargo, a pesar del hecho de que nunca hubo un “imperio fenicio’, los fenicios se mostraron más prolíficos en su exploración y colonización que ningún otro pueblo en la historia universal hasta los españoles en la época del descubrimiento.

Los fenicios fueron bien conocidos a lo largo de muchas civilizaciones en todo el mundo antiguo y su influencia se puede apreciar en muchos lugares del occidente hoy en día porque a ellos se les atribuye la invención del precursor del alfabeto griego, del que se derivó directamente el alfabeto latino. Sin embargo, los fenicios dejaron pocos textos escritos, de manera que los historiadores modernos se han visto forzados a reconstruir su pasado por medio de una variedad de antiguas fuentes egipcias, asirias, babilonias, griegas y romanas. No es ni siquiera claro cómo se llamaron a sí mismos los fenicios, porque el nombre “fenicio” se deriva de la palabra griega “phoinix”, que se refiere posiblemente a los tintes que ellos producían y comerciaban (Markoe 2000, 10).