Gary Elliott – författare

Doctoral Thesis / Dissertation from the year 2011 in the subject Psychology - Developmental Psychology, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: The main objective of this study was to conduct an empirical investigation to gather information from adolescents in the Pretoria area as to their level of body image dissatisfaction, anxiety and depression. This information was used to identify whether correlations exist between these three variables for South African youth. A literature study was conducted and the following hypotheses were developed for study:I. Adolescent females report higher (more severe) levels of body image dissatisfaction than males. II. Depression rates among South African adolescents have a female-to-male ratio of 2:1. III. Depression prevalence rates among South African adolescents are lower than their American counterparts. IV. Adolescent females display higher levels of anxiety than their male counterparts. V. A significant positive correlation exists between levels of body image dissatisfaction and levels of depression. VI. A significant positive correlation exists between levels of body image dissatisfaction and feelings of anxiety. VII. There is a significant positive correlation between levels of depression and anxiety in South African adolescents. The gathering of quantitative data took the form of a structured questionnaire comprising four distinct sections: demographic information, the Body Image Satisfaction scale, the Choate Depression Inventory for Children (CDIC), and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) scale. The questionnaire was administered to Grade 8-12 learners (aged 13-19 years old) to three different high school in the area, both independent and public schools. The sample group was randomly selected and yielded 350 completed questionnaires.

Master's Thesis from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Personality Psychology, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: The main objective of this study was to gather information from South African teenagers as to the prevalence of, and motivation for, the use of mass building supplements. In addition to gathering information pertaining to the frequency of use, the favoured brand of supplement and the type of supplements used by teenagers; the study also focused on attempting to identify an 'at risk' age for the commencement of supplement use. The motivation for the use of mass building supplements was integral in the formulation of the hypothesis; that body dissatisfaction was the primary motivation more than increased sporting prowess for the use of supplements. Gathering of quantitative data took the form of a structured questionnaire comprising three distinct sections. The first section gathered demographic information on age, grade, race and sporting involvement. The second section focused attention on body image questions and contained three components. In the first component the respondents were asked to rate their level of body satisfaction using a Likert-type scale for various aspects of their physique. The second component focused on their thoughts about their body and the last component focused on the level of appearance importance of the respondents. This section of the questionnaire utilized analysis tables generated originally by Thomas F Cash. The third section focused on gathering information in relation to the level, frequency and descriptions of mass building supplement use among the respondents. The questionnaire was administered to Grade 8 12 learners (aged 12-19years old) of a Boys School in Pretoria, South Africa. The sample group was randomly selected and yielded 176 completed or partially completed questionnaires. Data was entered into the Moon Stats statistical programme for analysis; affording the opportunity to generate univariate and bivariate statistics along with calculations of Pearson s product-moment correlations.

Master's Thesis from the year 2013 in the subject Psychology - Developmental Psychology, ( Atlantic International University ), course: Master of Psychology, language: English, abstract: The primary objective for this study was to conduct an empirical investigation to gather information in the form of data from adolescent males and females in the Pretoria region of South Africa. Information was gathered with respects to their level of physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility and depression. The information was used to identify whether correlations exist between the three variables anger, aggression and depression for South African adolescents. A literature study was conducted and the following hypotheses were developed for this study:I. Males are more likely to engage in physical aggression than females. II. Males and females are equally likely to engage in verbal aggression. III. Males are more likely to experience feelings of anger towards others. IV. Females are more likely to experience feelings of hostility towards others. V. Males and females are equally likely to report feelings of depression. VI. Rates of physical aggression are higher in younger adolescent males than older adolescent males. VII. The expressions of verbal aggression in females are constant throughout adolescence. VIII. There is a significant positive correlation between feelings of anger and expressions of aggression. IX. There is a significant positive correlation between feelings of anger and feelings of depression. X. There is a significant negative correlation between physical aggression and feelings of depression. The quantitative data gathered came from the completion of a structured questionnaire comprising four distinct sections: demographic information, the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ), the Anger Questionnaire (AQ) and the Choate Depression Inventory for Children (CDIC). The questionnaire was administered to Grade 7-12 pupils (aged 12-19 years old) in an independent school in Pretoria. The sample group was randomly selected and yielded 243 completed questionnaires. The data was coded and entered into the Moon Stats statistical programme for analysis; affording the opportunity to generate both univariate and bivariate statistics in conjunction with the calculation of Pearson product moment correlations. Analysis of the data yielded the following results:More males than females recorded medium levels of physical aggression at 58% to 42% respectively; this trend remains for high levels on this section, with males recording 66% against 34% for females.

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Clinical Psychology, Psychopathology, Prevention, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: It may be accepted that at some point in a child's life, they will display oppositional and defiant behaviour (Riley, 1997). When do the occasional rule-breaking, the sulking and whining, and the fits and tantrums become a cause for concern?In the course of this paper I will seek to clearly define the characteristics of oppositional defiant disorder and its more severe cousin, conduct disorder. I will expound on the areas of symptoms, causes and co-morbidity, and delve into the appropriate treatment and potential for rehabilitation of a child or teenager who may be suffering with either of these disorders. 2. DefinitionsOppositional defiant disorder (ODD) can be characterized by a hostile, negative and argumentative behaviour pattern (Sue, Sue & Sue, 1997). It is common place for these children to lose their temper and argue with adults, refusing their requests. A child who is suffering with ODD will refuse to take responsibility for his actions and his behaviour is an exaggerated attempt to show the parent or authority figure that they have no control over him (Riley, 1997). Rutherford and Nickerson (2010) believe that defiant behaviour among children and teenagers is becoming more prevalent. Conduct disorder (CD) can be characterized by repetitive and persistent social behaviour that violates the rights of others, or violates norms and rules that are appropriate for their age (McIntosh & Livingston, 2008). Conduct disorder includes behaviour such as bullying, lying, cheating, fighting, destruction of property, arson, assault, rape, truancy and cruelty to animals and people (Sue et al., 1997). It is quite evident that conduct disorder is a more severe behavioural condition than oppositional defiant disorder. If the characteristics of both disorders mentioned here seem rather similar, they should. Is it reasonably to assume that there is some kind of connection between them?2.1 InterrelatednessAccording to the American Psychiatric Association (1993), the behaviour associated with oppositional defiant disorder does not involve the more serious violations of the rights of others in the manner in which it is displayed in conduct disorder. The characteristics do seem to overlap, and for this reason it is noted that it is difficult to separate oppositional defiant disorder from milder forms of conduct disorder and the normal developmental difficulties that can occur in...

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Clinical Psychology, Psychopathology, Prevention, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: The term 'Orthorexia' was first coined in 1997 by Dr. Steven Bratman. The combination of the Greek words 'orthos' meaning correct or right and 'orexis' meaning appetite gives the lose definition of correct eating; prior to coining the term Bratman (2007) previously referred to Orthorexia as "e;righteous eating"e;. Predominantly, the primary focus is eating healthy food. In addition to healthy eating, Battaglia purports that orthorexics "e;obsess"e; over the quality of the food they eat more than the quantity. Not uncommon to many diet plans , the orthorexic places high importance on large quantities of fruit and vegetables in the eating plan, but often will fixate on eliminating what they deem bad foods; some sufferers trying to completely eliminate fat, sodium and carbohydrates from their diet (www.waldenbehaviouralcare.com). Dr Bratman affectionately refers to orthorexics as healthfood junkies , unfortunately this rather tongue-in-cheek term does little to relay the seriousness and potentially life-threatening nature of the disorder. In Dr Ingrid van Heerden s paper Orthorexia- a new eating disorder? Catalina Zamora describes this disorder as a pathological obsession for biologically pure food . The obsession in this disorder stems from the restrictive nature of the person s relationship with their food. What usually begins as a healthy diet progressively becomes more and more restrictive as additional items are removed from the diet; this deprivation of food items in the diet can have adverse effects on the orthorexic. Research was conducted at the Universita degli Studi di Roma La Sepienza in 2004; of the 404 subjects in the study, scientists concluded that 7% of them suffered with orthorexia (www.eating-disorder.com). Giving prudence to this research, Ellin (2009) explains that Dr James Greenblatt has seen an estimated 15% increase in this form of behaviour among his young patients. One of the major complications with Orthorexia is that it is not really considered to be a medical condition and as such does not have criteria for diagnosis. It is often perceived to be another form of anorexia nervosa or possibly a sub-type of obsessive-compulsive disorder; at the very least, some medical practitioners are in agreement that the associated behaviour explains an important and growing health phenomenon (www.pamf.org). What are the causes of Orthorexia?

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Clinical Psychology, Psychopathology, Prevention, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: Asperger s syndrome has only recently been accepted as a diagnosis on the autism spectrum even though it was first defined some sixty years ago. Asperger s syndrome is a disorder characterized by some of the features of autism, such as abnormalities of social interaction and repetitive and stereotyped interests and activities, but without the delay of retardation and cognitive development that is seen in true autism (Reber & Reber, 2001). This syndrome is very similar to that of autism, but the normal development of both speech and motor skills distinguish it from autism (Tilton, 2004). The syndrome is also marked by poor arithmetic skills, an impaired sense of humour and difficulty in comprehending the gestures of people around them. Barlow & Durand (2005) indicate that the child with Asperger s syndrome usually has an average IQ, with relatively little cognitive impairment; and imply that Asperger s is not a separate disorder from autism. This idea is supported by Reber & Reber (2001), who also note that some authorities still have doubts as to the validity of the syndrome as a separate disorder to autism. Dr Miriam Stoppard (2006) suggests that people with Asperger s syndrome are often highly intelligent but are perceived to be socially a bit odd . She places this disorder at the higher-functioning end of the autism spectrum of disorders. Dr. Hans Asperger was the first physician to document Asperger s syndrome in 1944. He was involved in studying children, mostly boys, who were having difficulty interacting in socially acceptable ways. The children appeared to be self-centered, socially isolated, less physically adept than others and rather uncoordinated. The children were displaying repetitive physical activities and showed a bizarre fascination with numbers, timetables and the working mechanisms of objects. He did so at the same time that Dr. Leo Kanner, a psychiatrist at the Johns Hopkins University was involved in writing about autism. Dr. Kanner was first to use the word autism which derived from the Greek autos meaning self . Interestingly, both physicians came to the same conclusions, without collaboration, at a time when autism spectrum disorders had not even been officially identified. As a result, European physicians ...

Seminar paper from the year 2013 in the subject Psychology - Clinical Psychology, Psychopathology, Prevention, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: The drugs mentioned in this paper each have their own specific effects on the user but they are similar in the manner in which they are used and the treatment used when working with the abuser. A substance is a chemical compound that alters behaviour or mood when ingested. This group includes alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, heroin and cocaine along with chocolate and soft drinks. The vast majority of users of the safe drugs are not perceived as addicts, they can be equally as addictive and harmful to one s health. There is a clear distinction between a user and an abuser of drugs. Substance use suggests that the individual ingests the drug in moderate amounts that have no significant effect on their social, educational or occupational functionality. The drug has the ability, based on the quantity ingested to create impaired judgement, mood changes and lowered motor ability; this result is referred to as intoxication. Substance abuse as an extension of use is really defined on how the use of the drug affects the individual s relationships, his work or education and whether it causes him to place himself or others in physically dangerous situations (Barlow & Durand: 2005). Drug dependence is often described as addiction. There is however some disagreement in how we best define substance dependence (Woody & Cacciola: 1997). One definition would explain how the individual requires systematically greater quantities of the drug to experience the same level of intoxication (tolerance), and will behave negatively if the drug is not ingested (withdrawal) (Franklin & Frances: 1999). An alternate view on substance dependence pertains to the behaviour that focuses on finding the required drug as a dependence indicator. A different view of substance dependence focuses on the drug seeking behaviour itself as an indication of dependence. The repetitive ingestion of the drug, an increased need for more of the drug and the likelihood that re-use of the drug will occur after a period of abstinence; are all behaviours that help to define the extent of the drug dependence. These behaviours have a psychological component and these in conjunction with physiological components of tolerance and withdrawal make for a better understanding of substance dependence. Many people are able to enjoy a glass of wine ...

Seminar paper from the year 2013 in the subject Psychology - Work, Business, Organisation, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: The world of work is complex and the nature of a chosen career is dynamic. This paper seeks to outline the decisions necessary and the responsibilities of the role-players in making for a smooth transition into the workplace. The nature of a career is clarified and its complexity is highlighted with the mentor's role being paramount to the induction of the new staff member into the organisation. The management team plays a critical role in ensuring opportunities for social interaction and the establishment of challenging job functions for the subordinates. In addition, in my mind the motivation of the staff is crucial in ensuring continued success in the workplace. I have outlined what constitutes motivation of a staff member and have utilised reference to Maslow s hierarchy and Alderfer s ERG theory to explain the levels of need that each staff member seeks to have met in order to remain motivated in the working environment. While the meeting of the employees needs are crucial, setting goals for the individual and the organisation is a key function of the management team in ensuring continued motivation among its staff members. When the staff member feels that they are part of the decision making process and their voice is being heard, they are intrinsically more motivated towards achieving the goal(s) set forth. Motivation is not always high among staff and it is often necessary to do some introspection and assess whether fairness within the organisation is a reality. Perceived inequity among employees can erode motivation. As such, fairness with regards salary, responsibility and rewards needs to be assessed on a regular basis. It may also be necessary to restructure the work that an individual or group of individuals is responsible for completing, in this way the work can become more rewarding, more challenging or simply less mundane for the employee and hence improve their motivation in the organisation. Having worked with high school children for some twenty years now and having been in a management position for over twelve years, this paper is as much for the reader and is it is for me. I find that I have refreshed my think while reminding myself of the responsibility that I have towards my students and my colleagues in preparing my students for their tertiary studies and careers and enhancing the motivation of the staff...

Seminar paper from the year 2013 in the subject Psychology - Forensic Psychology and Penal System, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: In the course of this paper we will deal with adolescent aggression. At the outset, the manner in which teenagers deal with their anger will be discussed. The progression from feelings of anger to displays of anger and aggression will be covered. We highlight the causes of adolescent anger, included here are triggers of aggression and the signs for parents to be aware of. Risk factors for aggressive behaviour among teenagers are outlined and the parallel between male and female displays of aggression are discussed. The manifestation of aggression has differences for boys and girls and concepts such as physical and verbal aggression are covered. The presence of both direct and passive aggression with relevance to sex differences is important to the content of this paper. The potential for the development of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder are also covered. Guidelines for parents with children who manifest aggressive behaviour will conclude the paper. Aggression is a serious problemAggressive behaviour of teenagers takes a number of forms; these include but are not limited to physical aggression, verbal aggression and indirect aggression. Physical aggression includes actions such as hitting, pushing, kicking, punching and hair-pulling but often escalates into stabbings, shootings and rape. Verbal aggression in contrast, includes intimidating type actions, threatening peers, displays of teasing, name-calling and taunting. The intention to harm another person constitutes aggression, but aggressive behaviour is often not as direct indirect aggression is equally as harmful and includes actions such as the creation of rumours, gossiping about a peer and the deliberate exclusion of a peer from a group setting or the encouraging of exclusive behaviour among teens. The display of aggression is fairly common among younger children but becomes more dangerous as the child moves into his teenage years and young adulthood. Statistics from research conducted with teenagers, indicates that around twenty percent of teenagers had been bullied during the past year. Up to thirty-three percent indicated that they had been involved in a physical fight and shockingly, thirty-two percent of females and forty percent of males had been involved in a serious violent act such as aggravated assault, robbery and even rape by the age of seventeen...

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Clinical Psychology, Psychopathology, Prevention, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: It is generally accepted that eating disorders are a serious concern among women but we are faced with a severe lack of research into the prevalence of men struggling with their body image. Sadly, many doctors still do not recognize cases of eating disorders in men with the result that fewer than 5% of all referrals to specialist eating disorder clinics are male (Morgan: 2008). Pollack (1999) discovered that at Harvard Medical School, there is increasing evidence that many men (and probably boys too) are becoming increasingly obsessed with their bodies. Men are beginning to diet in unprecedented numbers with an estimated one million of them suffering from eating disorders (Luciano: 2002). This figure of one million is perceived to be understated as males with eating disorders are for too often under diagnosed. Andersen et al. (2000) confirms that eating disorders in males has been overlooked and in some treatment centres, the ratio of men to women has changed over the past ten years from almost entirely women to 50:50. In Psychology Today magazine in 1997, an amazing 43%, nearly half of the men in the survey reported that they were dissatisfied with their overall appearance. Of those men surveyed, 63% were dissatisfied with their abdomen, 52% with their weight, 55% with their muscle tone and 38% with their chest (Pope et al: 2000). There does not seem to be a specific age at which men develop eating disorders, with sufferers as young as eight years old and eating disorders usually appearing around 14-25 years of age (B-eat). Children as young as two years old have already developed damaging eating habits, this can lead to eating disorders as the child ages, with 52,17% of eating disorders persisting into adulthood (Sancho et al: 2007). Morgan (2008) explains that eating disorders and body image problems develop slowly and subtly, but once you start to use eating habits and exercise as a means of dealing with distressing emotions, then there may be a problem. In a Brief History of Eating Disorders (2009) we find that after puberty, one million boys and men will have eating disorders; this coupled with Paterson s statement that on average, it seems to be approximately six years before men [or boys] will seek help ...

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Consulting and Therapy, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: Obsessive compulsive disorder initially was thought to be a relatively rare disorder, but is now recognized as a common psychiatric issue with an estimated lifetime prevalence of 1.9 to 3.3%. The United States has a prevalence rate for this anxiety disorder of one in every one hundred children. Research among the five to six million U.S. adults living with OCD discovered that 50 percent said that their symptoms began in childhood. A statistic like this drives home the need for both parents and educators to have a thorough understanding of the signs and symptoms of OCD in children in an attempt to identify and address the disorder as early as possible in the child's life. One of the greatest stumbling blocks to seeking professional attention for a child is the myths and misconceptions attached to the behaviour of a child suffering with this disorder. Mark suffers with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), characterized by obsessions or compulsions (usually both) that cause marked distress, are time consuming (take more than 1 hour a day), or significantly interfere with functioning. (Phillips 2009:282). An obsession is defined as a recurrent, persistent, and intrusive thought, impulse or image that is difficult to dismiss despite its disturbing nature. A compulsion is often known as a ritual. It is excessive repetitive behaviour (such as hand washing as in Mark s case above) or mental acts (such as counting) that are performed to try to decrease the anxiety caused by an obsession. These compulsions are usually difficult to resist or control. (p. 279)

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Miscellaneous, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: The term 'bigorexia nervosa', along with another synonym 'reverse anorexia', are nicknames for muscle dysmorphia. Muscle dysmorphia is deemed to be a sub-type of body dysmorphic disorder. It is seen primarily in men who usually perceive themselves as puny, or not muscular enough. The man or boy with muscle dysmorphia is bombarded with obsessive thoughts that their muscles aren't big enough and feel small and weak, even though, in many cases, they may actually have large, strong muscles. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV) describes body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) as a preoccupation with a defect in appearance. The defect is either imagined or minor, but if a defect is present, the individual s concern about the defect is markedly excessive in comparison with the severity of the defect (Claiborn & Pedrick: 2002). Sufferers of Muscle Dysmorphia, like others with BDD, see parts of their body as defective. This excessive preoccupation with body size and muscularity causes the sufferer to feel small when they re actually big. In Paterson (2008), muscle dysmorphia is defined as a syndrome seen in both men and boys who feel dissatisfied with their bodies; not believing they are muscular enough. Morgan (2008) explains that at the root of muscle dysmorphia is a distortion of body image. Body dysmorphia occurs almost exclusively in males and is a condition that consists of believing that one cannot be big enough (Andersen et al: 2000). In the Psychology Today magazine of 1997, it was reported that 43% of men interviewed were dissatisfied with their overall appearance; this is a dramatic increase form 15% in 1972 and 34% in 1985; so much so that Claiborn & Pedrick (2002) suggest that male body image dissatisfaction is catching up with that of women. Andersen et al. (2000) purports that more men than ever are dissatisfied with their weight, but unlike women, half of them want to get heavier, almost always in the form of increased muscle. In Phillips (2009) we discover that approximately one-quarter of men with body dysmorphic disorder are preoccupied with their overall body build. Morgan (2008) suggests that muscle dysmorphia exists at the end of a spectrum of behaviours designed to reshape the body. A strong parallel with body dysmorphic disorder is the imagined status of the defect in appearance; the brain of the bigorexic sufferer sees a perfectly normal body shape...

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Miscellaneous, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is 'a psychiatric illness in which patients become obsessively preoccupied with perceived flaws in their appearance' (Luciano 2002: p175). Martin & Costello (2008) view it is a severe dislike and concern about some slight or imagined aspect of their appearance, that causes them significant emotional distress and difficulties. Cash (2008) maintains that sufferers have 'a grossly distorted view of what they look like' and Phillips (2005) coins BDD as 'the disorder of imagined ugliness' (p5). Body Dysmorphic Disorder is classified as a somatoform disorder because the primary focus is a psychological preoccupation with a somatic issue. (Barlow & Durand: 2005) Thompson (2000) explains that the term that preceded Body Dysmorphic Disorder was dysmorphophobia which was used by Morselli in 1886 (Morselli, 1886) which literally meant a fear of ugliness . In 1903, Janet s description referred to an obsession with shame of the body ; for decades BDD was thought to represent a psychotic delusional state (Barlow & Durand: 2005, p183). The first English language paper on dysmorphophobia was not published until 1970 (Hay: 1970) focusing on the fear of other people s reactions to the imagined flaw in appearance. BDD gained official status in 1987 when it was first published in the DSM-III-RJim was convinced that everyone, even his good friends, was staring at a part of his body that he himself found absolutely grotesque. He reported that strangers would never mention his deformity and his friends felt too sorry for him to mention it. Jim thought his head was square! Jim could not imagine people getting past the fact that his head was square. To hide his condition as well as he could, Jim wore soft floppy hats and was most comfortable in winter, when he could all but completely cover his head with a large stocking cap. To us, Jim looked perfectly normal. (Barlow & Durand: 2005)In the article Body Dysmorphic Disorder in men, psychiatric treatments are usually effective , Katharine Phillips notes that BDD is an underrecognised yet relatively common and severe psychiatric disorder. Many doctors do not recognize the condition as yet and simply see it as low self-esteem (Paterson: 2008, p51) Claiborn & Pedrick (2002) focus their attention on the two predominant features of BDD; the preoccupation with the [imagined] defect and the actions taken to reduce the feelings of distress. How do I know if I have Body Dysmorphic Disorder?...

Seminar paper from the year 2010 in the subject Psychology - Clinical Psychology, Psychopathology, Prevention, ( Atlantic International University ), language: English, abstract: Bipolar Disorder, formerly known as manic depressive illness, is an affective disorder that is characterized by periods of mania alternating with periods of depression; these are usually interspersed with relatively long intervals of normal mood. It is interesting to note that this disorder has been shown to be one of the commonest disorders but has only recently been given its own classification, having previously been confused with many other disorders. PrevalenceIn the 1998 American census it was discovered that 20% of the adult population, some 44.3 million, had a mental-health issue. In addition to this, 20% of the children had also been diagnosed with a behavioural or emotional issue; this equates to between 7.7 and 12.8 million children (Stillman, 2005). Bipolar Disorder is believed to affect around 2.3 million adults in America and a conservative estimate of a million children. In Sue, Sue & Sue (1997) the prevalence of bipolar disorder is placed at around 1% of the adult population while 8-17% have experienced some form of major depressive episode. Bipolar disorder seems to be rare in children but there have been documented cases of children as young as four years old displaying the symptoms (Poznanski, Israel, & Grossman, 1984). It is interesting to note here that Taylor & Abrams (1981) suggest that about a third of all bipolar cases begin during adolescence, adding value to the focus of bipolar disorder in childhood. Papolos & Papolos (2006) add that an estimated third of all children who have been diagnosed with attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity (ADHD) have been misdiagnosed and are actually suffering from a mood disorder. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry suggest that a third of the 3.4 million children who appear to be suffering from depression will progress to the bipolar form of a mood disorder. While most investigators agree that mood disorders are fundamentally similar in children and in adults (Lewinsohn, Hops, Roberts, Seeley, & Andrews, 1993), Papolos & Papolos suggest that children have a more chronic course of illness than their adult counterparts and cycle between mania and depression with relatively few periods or normal mood (2006, p. 6). Barlow & Durand give an apt description of bipolar disorder as the tendency of manic episodes to alternate with major depressive episodes in an unending roller-coaster ride from the peaks of elation to the depths of despair , and while...