John Kilcullen - Böcker

William of Ockham was a medieval English philosopher and theologian (he was born about 1285, perhaps as late as 1288, and died in 1347 or 1348). In 1328 Ockham turned away from 'pure' philosophy and theology to polemic. From that year until the end of his life he worked to overthrow what he saw as the tyranny of Pope John XXII (1316-1334) and of his successors Popes Benedict XII (1334-1342) and Clement VI (1342-1352). This campaign led him into questions of ecclesiology (the study of the nature and structure of the Christian Church, e.g. of the functions and powers of the pope) and political philosophy.The Dialogus purports to be a transcript made by a mature student of lengthy discussions between himself and a university master about the various opinions of the learned on the matters disputed between John XXII and the dissident Franciscans. The student is usually the initiator; he chooses the topics, asks most of the questions and decides when he has heard enough. The master is, so to speak, an expert witness whom the student examines.This volume publishes an edition of two elements of the Dialogus. Part 2 of the Dialogus is not in dialogue form and may not to be the work of Ockham himself. Part 3 is divided into two tracts. Tract 1, which is reproduced in this volume, is on the power of the Pope and clergy.Liberal thinking in modern times builds on certain earlier ancient and medieval political ideas, which Ockham reasserted, defended and helped to perpetuate. Thus there are elements in his ecclesiology and political philosophy that anticipate the views of Locke, Mill, and other modern liberals.

William of Ockham was a leading English philosopher and theologian in the fourteenth century who came into controversy with Pope John XXII. His Dialogus is a survey of a wide range of matters controversial in the Catholic Church in the early fourteenth century. Topics discussed include the concepts of orthodoxy and heresy and the procedures for deciding whether a person is a heretic, the power of the pope within the Church, the power of the Church in relation to secular government, the constitution of the Church, and the constitution of secular government. The Dialogus is an important source of ideas on ecclesiology and political philosophy in the late middle ages. The present volume is concerned with heresy and heretics.

Theologians and church lawyers in William Ockham's time generally agreed that a pope could become a heretic. According to Ockham, that had happened with Pope John XXII. The first part of Ockham's Dialogue is intended to show that John was a heretic, and to set out what should be done to remove him from the papacy. The relevant questions are discussed in a long conversation between Master and Student in which Ockham's own opinions are not directly stated. In Against John, Ockham makes his views very clear.According to Ockham, no individual or body within the Church is infallible, not even the pope or a general council. Religious error can spread almost throughout the Church. But there will always be a remnant who do not fall into the error. Thus, a dissident individual or minority may be in the right. Among Christians there should therefore be freedom of speech. Any Christian, man or woman, learned or illiterate, can put forward an opinion and argue for it 'a thousand times', in the face of contradiction by the pope himself, without being a heretic, even if the opinion is in truth a heresy. What makes a believer in a heresy a heretic is pertinacity, i.e. unwillingness to listen or unwillingness to change one's mind even if contrary evidence is clearly explained. A clear sign of pertinacity is an attempt to impose error coercively. According to Ockham, Pope John XXII was a heretic, and therefore no longer pope, because he tried to impose heresies coercively.

These essays reflect upon Pierre Bayle's Philosophical Commentary on the Words of the Gospel 'Compel them to come in' which appeared in parts in 1686-88, a classic statement of the case for toleration. The first two essays are concerned with controversies about religious toleration in the seventeenth century, and the rest discuss philosophical questions relating to toleration and to the broader liberal idea of an open society.Three of the pieces originally appeared in Philosophy Research Archives and are reproduced here with alterations.

The eagerly-awaited second volume of The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts will allow scholars and students access for the first time in English to major texts in ethics and political thought from one of the most fruitful periods of speculation and analysis in the history of western thought. Beginning with Albert the Great, who introduced the Latin west to the challenging moral philosophy and natural science of Aristotle, and concluding with the first substantial presentation in English of the revolutionary ideas on property and political power of John Wyclif, the seventeen texts in this anthology offer late medieval treatments of fundamental issues in human conduct that are both conceptually subtle and of direct practical import. Special features of this volume include copious editorial introductions, an analytical index, and suggestions for further reading. This is an important resource for scholars and students of medieval philosophy, history, political science, theology and literature.

The eagerly-awaited second volume of The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts will allow scholars and students access for the first time in English to major texts in ethics and political thought from one of the most fruitful periods of speculation and analysis in the history of western thought. Beginning with Albert the Great, who introduced the Latin west to the challenging moral philosophy and natural science of Aristotle, and concluding with the first substantial presentation in English of the revolutionary ideas on property and political power of John Wyclif, the seventeen texts in this anthology offer late medieval treatments of fundamental issues in human conduct that are both conceptually subtle and of direct practical import. Special features of this volume include copious editorial introductions, an analytical index, and suggestions for further reading. This is an important resource for scholars and students of medieval philosophy, history, political science, theology and literature.

More than any other single thinker, William of Ockham (c.1285-1347) is responsible for the widely held modern assumption that religious and secular-political institutions should normally operate independently of one another. When this assumption is questioned in some quarters, Ockham's acute analysis of the basis and functions of authority in spiritual and temporal affairs is of modern as well as historical interest. His point of departure was a tragic collision between two specifically Christian ideals: the Franciscan conception of Christ's lordship (as lacking material wealth and power) and the ideal of a society guided by the single supreme authority of Christ's vicar, the Pope. This volume begins with Ockham's personal account of his engagement in that conflict and continues with essential passages from the major works in which he attempted to resolve it.

More than any other single thinker, William of Ockham (c.1285-1347) is responsible for the widely held modern assumption that religious and secular-political institutions should normally operate independently of one another. When this assumption is questioned in some quarters, Ockham's acute analysis of the basis and functions of authority in spiritual and temporal affairs is of modern as well as historical interest. His point of departure was a tragic collision between two specifically Christian ideals: the Franciscan conception of Christ's lordship (as lacking material wealth and power) and the ideal of a society guided by the single supreme authority of Christ's vicar, the Pope. This volume begins with Ockham's personal account of his engagement in that conflict and continues with essential passages from the major works in which he attempted to resolve it.