Kai-Uwe Schrogl – författare

Space Security involves the use of space (in particular communication, navigation, earth observation, and electronic intelligence satellites) for military and security purposes on earth and also the maintenance of space (in particular the earth orbits) as safe and secure areas for conducting peaceful activities. The two aspects can be summarized as "space for security on earth" and “the safeguarding of space for peaceful endeavors.” The Handbook will provide a sophisticated, cutting-edge resource on the space security policy portfolio and the associated assets, assisting fellow members of the global space community and other interested policy-making and academic audiences in keeping abreast of the current and future directions of this vital dimension of international space policy. The debate on coordinated space security measures, including relevant ''Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures,'' remains at a relatively early stage of development. The book offers a comprehensive description of the various components of space security and how these challenges are being addressed today. It will also provide a number of recommendations concerning how best to advance this space policy area, given the often competing objectives of the world''s major space-faring nations. The critical role to be played by the United States and Europe as an intermediary and  "middle diplomat" in promoting sustainable norms of behavior for space will likewise be highlighted. In providing a global and coherent analytical approach to space security today, the Handbook focuses on four areas that together define the entire space security area: policies, technologies, applications, and programs. This structure will assure the overall view of the subject from its political to its technical aspects. Internationally recognized experts in each of the above fields contribute, with their analytical synthesis assured by the section editors.

Elgar Research Agendas outline the future of research in a given area. Leading scholars are given the opportunity to explore their subject in provocative ways, and map out the potential directions of travel. They are relevant but also visionary.Space policy is now a top priority in international relations. This timely Research Agenda takes the definition of space policy itself as an object of analysis rather than as an unquestioned premise. It presents the multi-faceted spectrum of elements combined within space policy which are crucially relevant to security, welfare and modern society.Chapters demonstrate why space matters and how space policy research has reflected this during the past half-century. Expert international contributors set out a forward-looking research agenda for the 2020s, identifying key problems and conflicts related to the topic and exploring policy, regulatory approaches and diplomatic mechanisms to reach possible solutions. The types of actors and institutions playing a key role in space policy are also examined through an interdisciplinary lens. Scholars and students of political science, international relations and law will find this to be a sophisticated, cutting-edge resource for analysing and understanding the multi-dimensional impacts of space policy.

Elgar Research Agendas outline the future of research in a given area. Leading scholars are given the opportunity to explore their subject in provocative ways, and map out the potential directions of travel. They are relevant but also visionary.

Space policy is now a top priority in international relations. This timely Research Agenda takes the definition of space policy itself as an object of analysis rather than as an unquestioned premise. It presents the multi-faceted spectrum of elements combined within space policy which are crucially relevant to security, welfare and modern society.

Chapters demonstrate why space matters and how space policy research has reflected this during the past half-century. Expert international contributors set out a forward-looking research agenda for the 2020s, identifying key problems and conflicts related to the topic and exploring policy, regulatory approaches and diplomatic mechanisms to reach possible solutions. The types of actors and institutions playing a key role in space policy are also examined through an interdisciplinary lens.

Scholars and students of political science, international relations and law will find this to be a sophisticated, cutting-edge resource for analysing and understanding the multi-dimensional impacts of space policy.

Space Security involves the use of space (in particular communication, navigation, earth observation, and electronic intelligence satellites) for military and security purposes on earth and also the maintenance of space (in particular the earth orbits) as safe and secure areas for conducting peaceful activities. The two aspects can be summarized as "space for security on earth" and “the safeguarding of space for peaceful endeavors.” The second, updated edition of this handbook provides a sophisticated, cutting-edge resource on the space security portfolio and the associated technology, applications and programs to help fellow members of the global space community and other interested policy-making and academic audiences keep abreast of the current and future directions of this vital dimension of international space policy. Various dimensions of space security as well as space for security on Earth are described, covering space policy and the geopolitics of space, existing and planned applications and programs, as well as technological solutions. This second edition covers the recent space and security developments that have taken place in Europe and worldwide over the last years, along with new challenges that must be addressed. At its conclusion, the book provides foreward-looking recommendations, especially in the area of space governance and transparency and confidence-building measures.

Space Security involves the use of space (in particular communication, navigation, earth observation, and electronic intelligence satellites) for military and security purposes on earth and also the maintenance of space (in particular the earth orbits) as safe and secure areas for conducting peaceful activities. The two aspects can be summarized as "space for security on earth" and “the safeguarding of space for peaceful endeavors.” The second, updated edition of this handbook provides a sophisticated, cutting-edge resource on the space security portfolio and the associated technology, applications and programs to help fellow members of the global space community and other interested policy-making and academic audiences keep abreast of the current and future directions of this vital dimension of international space policy. Various dimensions of space security as well as space for security on Earth are described, covering space policy and the geopolitics of space, existing and planned applications and programs, as well as technological solutions. This second edition covers the recent space and security developments that have taken place in Europe and worldwide over the last years, along with new challenges that must be addressed. At its conclusion, the book provides foreward-looking recommendations, especially in the area of space governance and transparency and confidence-building measures.

This book offers the first comprehensive social science perspective on geoengineering—technologies that deliberately intervene in Earth’s systems to counter climate change. It examines the political, legal, economic, and societal dimensions of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) and Solar Radiation Modification (SRM), combining SWOT analyses with regional perspectives from Africa and the Asia-Pacific.Contributors illuminate the urgent governance, ethical, and geopolitical challenges that arise when states and societies confront the “risk versus risk” dilemma: unchecked climate change versus potentially disruptive interventions.Offering clear insights into emerging regulatory debates and global power dynamics, the volume provides scholars, policymakers, and practitioners with tools to engage in informed and responsible decision-making. A timely guide to one of the 21st century’s most controversial climate strategies, it helps readers navigate the politics of turning Earth’s thermostat down.

This book offers the first comprehensive social science perspective on geoengineering—technologies that deliberately intervene in Earth’s systems to counter climate change. It examines the political, legal, economic, and societal dimensions of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) and Solar Radiation Modification (SRM), combining SWOT analyses with regional perspectives from Africa and the Asia-Pacific.Contributors illuminate the urgent governance, ethical, and geopolitical challenges that arise when states and societies confront the “risk versus risk” dilemma: unchecked climate change versus potentially disruptive interventions.Offering clear insights into emerging regulatory debates and global power dynamics, the volume provides scholars, policymakers, and practitioners with tools to engage in informed and responsible decision-making. A timely guide to one of the 21st century’s most controversial climate strategies, it helps readers navigate the politics of turning Earth’s thermostat down.

Spacepolicyisanissueareaofparticularstrategicrelevance. Itreceivesaconstantly growingattentionbynationalgovernmentsandtheEuropeanUnion. Ittouches numerousimportantareaslikesecurity,science,technology,knowledge,infor- tion,mobility,environmentorresourcemanagement,tonameonlyafew. Through this,spacepolicydrawsfrombutalsodrivesthemostdecisiveaspectsofmodern society. Anillustrationforthisstatementcanbegivenwithabrieflookonrecent developmentsinspacepolicy. InparticulartheadoptionoftheEuropeanSpace PolicyinMay2007,whichhadbeenjointlypreparedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgency andtheEuropeanCommission,doeshaveatremendousimpactonareasbene?ting fromspaceapplications,likeclimateresearch,disastermanagementorresource management. TheEuropeanSpacePolicywillalsopushareaslikenavigationor telecommunications,whichareattheheartoftheknowledgesocietyandtheme- issueofmobility. Atthesametime,securityinallitsfacetsisgrowinglydependingon theuseofspacecapabilitiesandspacepolicymakinghasstartedtore?ectthis. Onthe globallevel,theinitiativesforroboticandhumanspaceexplorationgainmoreand moreprominenceandwithactorslikeChina,arenaissanceofspaceasastrategictool forinternationalprestigeandin?uencecanbeobserved.Thecharacterofspacepolicyandthedynamisminthis?eldanditsrelatedareas makeitappropriateandevennecessarytosurveythis?eldonacontinuousbasiswith ahighstandard. ThisreasoningwasthebasisfortheinitiativebytheEuropeanSpace PolicyInstitute(ESPI)topreparetheYearbookonSpacePolicy. TheYearbookis intended to become the reference publication for the analysis of space policy developments. ThescopeisglobalbuttheperspectiveisEuropean. Thiscoincides withESPI?smissiontobethefocalpointforEuropeanresearchinthe?eldofspace policyasprovidedforbythedecisionoftheCounciloftheEuropeanSpaceAgency tofoundESPI. Asathinktank,ESPIhastoprovideinformationandanalysisandto contributefacilitating the decision-making process. The Yearbook isaimed to becomea?agshipinESPI?sproductlineapproachingthisgoal. Theaspirationis thattheYearbookonSpacePolicymaygainthestatureofcomparableyearbooksin internationalrelationsbyleadingthinktanksaroundtheworld. TheYearbookonSpacePolicyhasanumberofspeci?cfeatures. Thereporting periodwillusuallybefromJulytoJune,leadingtoitspublicationinthebeginningof thefollowingyear. Forthis?rstedition,thereportingperiodwassettostartearlier (from1January2006)butstopatthetypicaldate(30June2007).Thisservesthe purposetocoverthewholeyear2006. TheYearbookwillhavethreeparts. The?rst partispreparedbyESPIandprovidesasystematicanalysisofthemainspace v Preface activitiesintheglobalpoliticalcontext. Itcontainsapresentationofthemajor developmentsinspacepolicies,programmesandtechnologiesaroundtheworld. In thesecondpart,usuallyaroundtenprominentresearcherscontributearticlesto speci?ctopicsofparticularrelevance. Inthiseditiontheyarerelatedtoinitiativesand decisionsinEuropeanspacepolicies -asindicatedinthisyear?smottoofthe Yearbook-Spacepolicyisanissueareaofparticularstrategicrelevance. Itreceivesaconstantly growingattentionbynationalgovernmentsandtheEuropeanUnion. Ittouches numerousimportantareaslikesecurity,science,technology,knowledge,infor- tion,mobility,environmentorresourcemanagement,tonameonlyafew. Through this,spacepolicydrawsfrombutalsodrivesthemostdecisiveaspectsofmodern society. Anillustrationforthisstatementcanbegivenwithabrieflookonrecent developmentsinspacepolicy. InparticulartheadoptionoftheEuropeanSpace PolicyinMay2007,whichhadbeenjointlypreparedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgency andtheEuropeanCommission,doeshaveatremendousimpactonareasbene?ting fromspaceapplications,likeclimateresearch,disastermanagementorresource management.TheEuropeanSpacePolicywillalsopushareaslikenavigationor telecommunications,whichareattheheartoftheknowledgesocietyandtheme- issueofmobility. Atthesametime,securityinallitsfacetsisgrowinglydependingon theuseofspacecapabilitiesandspacepolicymakinghasstartedtore?ectthis. Onthe globallevel,theinitiativesforroboticandhumanspaceexplorationgainmoreand moreprominenceandwithactorslikeChina,arenaissanceofspaceasastrategictool forinternationalprestigeandin?uencecanbeobserved. Thecharacterofspacepolicyandthedynamisminthis?eldanditsrelatedareas makeitappropriateandevennecessarytosurveythis?eldonacontinuousbasiswith ahighstandard. ThisreasoningwasthebasisfortheinitiativebytheEuropeanSpace PolicyInstitute(ESPI)topreparetheYearbookonSpacePolicy. TheYearbookis intended to become the reference publication for the analysis of space policy developments. ThescopeisglobalbuttheperspectiveisEuropean. Thiscoincides withESPI?smissiontobethefocalpointforEuropeanresearchinthe?eldofspace policyasprovidedforbythedecisionoftheCounciloftheEuropeanSpaceAgency tofoundESPI. Asathinktank,ESPIhastoprovideinformationandanalysisandto contributefacilitating the decision-making process. The Yearbook isaimed to becomea?agshipinESPI?sproductlineapproachingthisgoal. Theaspirationis thattheYearbookonSpacePolicymaygainthestatureofcomparableyearbooksin internationalrelationsbyleadingthinktanksaroundtheworld. TheYearbookonSpacePolicyhasanumberofspeci?cfeatures. Thereporting periodwillusuallybefromJulytoJune,leadingtoitspublicationinthebeginningof thefollowingyear. Forthis?rstedition,thereportingperiodwassettostartearlier (from1January2006)butstopatthetypicaldate(30June2007). Thisservesthe purposetocoverthewholeyear2006. TheYearbookwillhavethreeparts. The?rst partispreparedbyESPIandprovidesasystematicanalysisofthemainspace v Preface activitiesintheglobalpoliticalcontext. Itcontainsapresentationofthemajor developmentsinspacepolicies,programmesandtechnologiesaroundtheworld. In thesecondpart,usuallyaroundtenprominentresearcherscontributearticlesto speci?ctopicsofparticularrelevance. Inthiseditiontheyarerelatedtoinitiativesand decisionsinEuropeanspacepolicies -asindicatedinthisyear?smottoofthe Yearbook-butalsoglobalissuesliketherecentChineseantisatellitetestorthenew Japanesespaceregulation. ThethirdpartoftheYearbook,againpreparedbyESPI, contains a unique compilation of important facts and ?gures.It includes achronology,anoverviewonspaceactivitiesinselectedcountriesandabibliography. TheprojectofacomprehensiveYearbookrequiresthecooperationofthewhole community. ThisiswhyESPI?sworkforthispublicationiscomplementedbythe contributionsofexternalauthorsprovidingtheirexceptionalinsightsandexperiences. ThesecontributorsfromalloverEuropearetheleadingacademicexpertsmainlybased inthinktanksanduniversityinstituteswhilesomearealsoassociatedwithspace agenciesorworkinindustryorresearchanddevelopment. Theyarepartofthe EuropeanSpacePolicyResearchandAcademicNetwork(ESPRAN)coordinatedby ESPI. ItisimportanttomentionthatalsoexpertsfromoutsideEuropecanbepartof thisnetwork. ThisishighlightedbythecontributionofJohnLogsdon(George WashingtonUniversity,WashingtonDC),oneofthedoyensinspacepolicyresearch. InvolvedinthisendeavourisalsoanEditorialAdvisoryBoard,composedofthe membersofESPI?sAdvisoryCouncil. Allthisaimsatsecuringtheacademicqualityof theYearbookanditsaimtobecomearelevantsourceofinformationandanalysis. AnimportantelementofthesuccessofsuchaninitiativelikethisYearbookisthe mediumofitspresentation. ESPIisextremelypleasedthatSpringerWienNewYork wasfromtheoutsetverymuchinterestedinthisproject.Throughtheexcellent collaborationwithSpringer?sSilviaSchilgeriusthechallengesofa?rsteditionfor suchaYearbookseriesweremasteredwithgreatease. CooperationbetweenESPI andSpringerWienNewYorkisintendedtointensifyfurtherwithadedicatedbook seriesonspacepolicy. TheseperspectiveswereadditionalmotivationforESPI?s editorialteamforthis?rsteditionoftheYearbook,whereNicolasPeterauthored Part1,CharlotteMathieueditedPart2andCharlotteMathieuandBlandina BaranespreparedPart3. Valuablecontributionsandsupportwereprovidedinthe earlyplanningphasebySergePlattardandintheeditorialphasebyPierre-Henri Pisani,JulieAbouYehiaandTimSkurbaty. Itiswithgreatcon?dencethatwebring this Yearbook to the attention of decision makers, professionals in industry, researchandsciencedealingwithspaceactivitiesandinternationalrelationsand alsotothebroaderpublic,whichintendstounderstandthepoliciesbehindoneof themostimportantandfascinatingprovincesofmodernsociety:space! Kai-UweSchrogl,CharlotteMathieu,NicolasPeter ESPIeditorialteam vi Tableofcontents Tableofcontents Listofacronyms...xiv Listof?guresandtables ...xxii PART1 TheYearinSpace2006/2007 Chapter1. Europeanspaceactivitiesintheglobal context. NicolasPeter 1.Geopoliticaltrends ...2 1. 1. Globaleconomicoutlook ...2 1. 2. Politicaldevelopmentsin2006/2007...3 1. 2. 1. Europe ...3 1. 2. 2. UnitedStates...4 1. 2. 3. Russia...5 1. 2. 4. Japan...5 1. 2. 5. China...6 1. 2. 6. India...7 1. 3. Internationalsecurity...7 1. 4. Majorhighlightsinscienti?cactivitiesandresearch ...8 1. 5. Mainscienceandtechnologyindicators relevanttospace activities...11 1. 5. 1. Scienceandtechnologyinputs ...11 1. 5. 2. Scienceandtechnologyoutputs...13 2. Worldwidespacepoliciesandstrategies ...16 2. 1. TheUnitedNationssystem...16 2. 1. 1. UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblycommittees...18 2. 1. 2. OtherUnitedNationsbodiesandorgans...

Development is challenged by, at least until 2050, a strong population, more severe environmental strains, growing mobility, and dwindling energy resources. All these factors will lead to serious consequences for humankind. Inadequate agricultural resources, water supply and non renewable energy sources, epidemics, climate change, and natural disasters will further heavily impact human life. The European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) sheds a new light on threats, risks and sustainability by combining approaches from various disciplines. It analyzes what could be the contribution of space tools to predict, manage and mitigate those threats. It aims at demonstrating that space is not a niche but has become an overarching tool in solving today’s problems.

Humans and space When faced with the issue of space exploration, one generally has an idea of the ?elds of study and disciplines that are involved: technology, physics and chemistry, robotics, astronomy and planetary science, space biology and medicine, disciplines which are usually referred to as the ?sciences?. In recent discussions, the human element of space exploration has attracted more and more the interest of the space sciences. As a consequence, adjacent disciplines have gained in relevance in space exploration and space research, in times when human space ?ights are almost part of everyday life. These disciplines include psychology and sociology, but also history, philosophy, anthropology, cultural studies, political sciences and law. The cont- bution of knowledge in these ?elds plays an important role in achieving the next generation of space exploration, where humans will resume exploring the Moon and, eventually, Mars,and wherespacetourism isbeginningtobedeveloped. With regard to technology, one might soon be prepared for this. Much less is this the case with space exploration by humans, rather than by robots. Robotic explorations to other planets across the solar system have developed in the past 50 years, since the beginning of the ?space age? with the presence of humans in nearby space and the landing on the Moon. Space exploration is now not only focused on technological achievements,asitsdevelopmentalsohassocial,culturalandeconomicimpacts. This makes human space exploration a topic to address in a cross-disciplinary manner.

Humans and space When faced with the issue of space exploration, one generally has an idea of the ?elds of study and disciplines that are involved: technology, physics and chemistry, robotics, astronomy and planetary science, space biology and medicine, disciplines which are usually referred to as the ?sciences?. In recent discussions, the human element of space exploration has attracted more and more the interest of the space sciences. As a consequence, adjacent disciplines have gained in relevance in space exploration and space research, in times when human space ?ights are almost part of everyday life. These disciplines include psychology and sociology, but also history, philosophy, anthropology, cultural studies, political sciences and law. The cont- bution of knowledge in these ?elds plays an important role in achieving the next generation of space exploration, where humans will resume exploring the Moon and, eventually, Mars,and wherespacetourism isbeginningtobedeveloped. With regard to technology, one might soon be prepared for this. Much less is this the case with space exploration by humans, rather than by robots. Robotic explorations to other planets across the solar system have developed in the past 50 years, since the beginning of the ?space age? with the presence of humans in nearby space and the landing on the Moon. Space exploration is now not only focused on technological achievements,asitsdevelopmentalsohassocial,culturalandeconomicimpacts. This makes human space exploration a topic to address in a cross-disciplinary manner.

At the time of ?nalising this second volume of the ?Yearbook on Space Policy? which covers the period mid-2007 to mid-2008, Europe is as visible and strong in the area of space activities as never before. Its space probes are present on the Moon, around Mars, and on Saturn?s Moon Titan, and are chasing asteroids and comets; Ariane V is the most successful commercial launch vehicle; and more and more European space applications satellites are in operation. Finally, with the successful launch of the Columbus Orbital Facility (COF) – the most prominent highlight of this period which is also depicted on the cover of this Yearbook – and the ?rst Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Europe has become a decisive player in human space?ight. This is accompanied by new policy initiatives on the ministerial level which have been bringing the European Space Agency and the European Union steadily closer. Europe?s outstanding development and positioning in the space ?eld is based not only on Europe?s successful engineering and scienti?c capabilities and capacities, but also on the forceful political determination of all European actors to maintain and even further their engagement in the use of outer space. And it is this political determination which provides the focus for this ?Yearbook on Space Policy?. The Yearbook describes and analyses the contexts and contents of space policy. Its primary ?eld of investigation is Europe, but it also covers the whole range of global space activities and their in?uence on European endeavours.

At the time of ?nalising this second volume of the ?Yearbook on Space Policy? which covers the period mid-2007 to mid-2008, Europe is as visible and strong in the area of space activities as never before. Its space probes are present on the Moon, around Mars, and on Saturn?s Moon Titan, and are chasing asteroids and comets; Ariane V is the most successful commercial launch vehicle; and more and more European space applications satellites are in operation. Finally, with the successful launch of the Columbus Orbital Facility (COF) – the most prominent highlight of this period which is also depicted on the cover of this Yearbook – and the ?rst Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Europe has become a decisive player in human space?ight. This is accompanied by new policy initiatives on the ministerial level which have been bringing the European Space Agency and the European Union steadily closer. Europe?s outstanding development and positioning in the space ?eld is based not only on Europe?s successful engineering and scienti?c capabilities and capacities, but also on the forceful political determination of all European actors to maintain and even further their engagement in the use of outer space. And it is this political determination which provides the focus for this ?Yearbook on Space Policy?. The Yearbook describes and analyses the contexts and contents of space policy. Its primary ?eld of investigation is Europe, but it also covers the whole range of global space activities and their in?uence on European endeavours.

As space applications become central to modern interaction, more and more entities are becoming involved in space activities. Consequently, strategies to establish the coordinated, ethically justifiable and sustainable conduct of space activities have to be found. Such an endeavour requires addressing current questions regarding the use of space, dealing with fair rules in orbit and discussing the way towards achieving truly global engagement on space security issues. The book outlines the current situation and identifies key challenges from the policy perspective. Taking this one step further, it also formulates principles and recommendations for global action. Nineteen eminent personalities from the space sector have united for this project, which is based on a conference organised at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) in November 2008 in Vienna.

Spacepolicyisanissueareaofparticularstrategicrelevance. Itreceivesaconstantly growingattentionbynationalgovernmentsandtheEuropeanUnion. Ittouches numerousimportantareaslikesecurity,science,technology,knowledge,infor- tion,mobility,environmentorresourcemanagement,tonameonlyafew. Through this,spacepolicydrawsfrombutalsodrivesthemostdecisiveaspectsofmodern society. Anillustrationforthisstatementcanbegivenwithabrieflookonrecent developmentsinspacepolicy. InparticulartheadoptionoftheEuropeanSpace PolicyinMay2007,whichhadbeenjointlypreparedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgency andtheEuropeanCommission,doeshaveatremendousimpactonareasbene?ting fromspaceapplications,likeclimateresearch,disastermanagementorresource management. TheEuropeanSpacePolicywillalsopushareaslikenavigationor telecommunications,whichareattheheartoftheknowledgesocietyandtheme- issueofmobility. Atthesametime,securityinallitsfacetsisgrowinglydependingon theuseofspacecapabilitiesandspacepolicymakinghasstartedtore?ectthis. Onthe globallevel,theinitiativesforroboticandhumanspaceexplorationgainmoreand moreprominenceandwithactorslikeChina,arenaissanceofspaceasastrategictool forinternationalprestigeandin?uencecanbeobserved.Thecharacterofspacepolicyandthedynamisminthis?eldanditsrelatedareas makeitappropriateandevennecessarytosurveythis?eldonacontinuousbasiswith ahighstandard. ThisreasoningwasthebasisfortheinitiativebytheEuropeanSpace PolicyInstitute(ESPI)topreparetheYearbookonSpacePolicy. TheYearbookis intended to become the reference publication for the analysis of space policy developments. ThescopeisglobalbuttheperspectiveisEuropean. Thiscoincides withESPI?smissiontobethefocalpointforEuropeanresearchinthe?eldofspace policyasprovidedforbythedecisionoftheCounciloftheEuropeanSpaceAgency tofoundESPI. Asathinktank,ESPIhastoprovideinformationandanalysisandto contributefacilitating the decision-making process. The Yearbook isaimed to becomea?agshipinESPI?sproductlineapproachingthisgoal. Theaspirationis thattheYearbookonSpacePolicymaygainthestatureofcomparableyearbooksin internationalrelationsbyleadingthinktanksaroundtheworld. TheYearbookonSpacePolicyhasanumberofspeci?cfeatures. Thereporting periodwillusuallybefromJulytoJune,leadingtoitspublicationinthebeginningof thefollowingyear. Forthis?rstedition,thereportingperiodwassettostartearlier (from1January2006)butstopatthetypicaldate(30June2007).Thisservesthe purposetocoverthewholeyear2006. TheYearbookwillhavethreeparts. The?rst partispreparedbyESPIandprovidesasystematicanalysisofthemainspace v Preface activitiesintheglobalpoliticalcontext. Itcontainsapresentationofthemajor developmentsinspacepolicies,programmesandtechnologiesaroundtheworld. In thesecondpart,usuallyaroundtenprominentresearcherscontributearticlesto speci?ctopicsofparticularrelevance. Inthiseditiontheyarerelatedtoinitiativesand decisionsinEuropeanspacepolicies -asindicatedinthisyear?smottoofthe Yearbook-Spacepolicyisanissueareaofparticularstrategicrelevance. Itreceivesaconstantly growingattentionbynationalgovernmentsandtheEuropeanUnion. Ittouches numerousimportantareaslikesecurity,science,technology,knowledge,infor- tion,mobility,environmentorresourcemanagement,tonameonlyafew. Through this,spacepolicydrawsfrombutalsodrivesthemostdecisiveaspectsofmodern society. Anillustrationforthisstatementcanbegivenwithabrieflookonrecent developmentsinspacepolicy. InparticulartheadoptionoftheEuropeanSpace PolicyinMay2007,whichhadbeenjointlypreparedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgency andtheEuropeanCommission,doeshaveatremendousimpactonareasbene?ting fromspaceapplications,likeclimateresearch,disastermanagementorresource management.TheEuropeanSpacePolicywillalsopushareaslikenavigationor telecommunications,whichareattheheartoftheknowledgesocietyandtheme- issueofmobility. Atthesametime,securityinallitsfacetsisgrowinglydependingon theuseofspacecapabilitiesandspacepolicymakinghasstartedtore?ectthis. Onthe globallevel,theinitiativesforroboticandhumanspaceexplorationgainmoreand moreprominenceandwithactorslikeChina,arenaissanceofspaceasastrategictool forinternationalprestigeandin?uencecanbeobserved. Thecharacterofspacepolicyandthedynamisminthis?eldanditsrelatedareas makeitappropriateandevennecessarytosurveythis?eldonacontinuousbasiswith ahighstandard. ThisreasoningwasthebasisfortheinitiativebytheEuropeanSpace PolicyInstitute(ESPI)topreparetheYearbookonSpacePolicy. TheYearbookis intended to become the reference publication for the analysis of space policy developments. ThescopeisglobalbuttheperspectiveisEuropean. Thiscoincides withESPI?smissiontobethefocalpointforEuropeanresearchinthe?eldofspace policyasprovidedforbythedecisionoftheCounciloftheEuropeanSpaceAgency tofoundESPI. Asathinktank,ESPIhastoprovideinformationandanalysisandto contributefacilitating the decision-making process. The Yearbook isaimed to becomea?agshipinESPI?sproductlineapproachingthisgoal. Theaspirationis thattheYearbookonSpacePolicymaygainthestatureofcomparableyearbooksin internationalrelationsbyleadingthinktanksaroundtheworld. TheYearbookonSpacePolicyhasanumberofspeci?cfeatures. Thereporting periodwillusuallybefromJulytoJune,leadingtoitspublicationinthebeginningof thefollowingyear. Forthis?rstedition,thereportingperiodwassettostartearlier (from1January2006)butstopatthetypicaldate(30June2007). Thisservesthe purposetocoverthewholeyear2006. TheYearbookwillhavethreeparts. The?rst partispreparedbyESPIandprovidesasystematicanalysisofthemainspace v Preface activitiesintheglobalpoliticalcontext. Itcontainsapresentationofthemajor developmentsinspacepolicies,programmesandtechnologiesaroundtheworld. In thesecondpart,usuallyaroundtenprominentresearcherscontributearticlesto speci?ctopicsofparticularrelevance. Inthiseditiontheyarerelatedtoinitiativesand decisionsinEuropeanspacepolicies -asindicatedinthisyear?smottoofthe Yearbook-butalsoglobalissuesliketherecentChineseantisatellitetestorthenew Japanesespaceregulation. ThethirdpartoftheYearbook,againpreparedbyESPI, contains a unique compilation of important facts and ?gures.It includes achronology,anoverviewonspaceactivitiesinselectedcountriesandabibliography. TheprojectofacomprehensiveYearbookrequiresthecooperationofthewhole community. ThisiswhyESPI?sworkforthispublicationiscomplementedbythe contributionsofexternalauthorsprovidingtheirexceptionalinsightsandexperiences. ThesecontributorsfromalloverEuropearetheleadingacademicexpertsmainlybased inthinktanksanduniversityinstituteswhilesomearealsoassociatedwithspace agenciesorworkinindustryorresearchanddevelopment. Theyarepartofthe EuropeanSpacePolicyResearchandAcademicNetwork(ESPRAN)coordinatedby ESPI. ItisimportanttomentionthatalsoexpertsfromoutsideEuropecanbepartof thisnetwork. ThisishighlightedbythecontributionofJohnLogsdon(George WashingtonUniversity,WashingtonDC),oneofthedoyensinspacepolicyresearch. InvolvedinthisendeavourisalsoanEditorialAdvisoryBoard,composedofthe membersofESPI?sAdvisoryCouncil. Allthisaimsatsecuringtheacademicqualityof theYearbookanditsaimtobecomearelevantsourceofinformationandanalysis. AnimportantelementofthesuccessofsuchaninitiativelikethisYearbookisthe mediumofitspresentation. ESPIisextremelypleasedthatSpringerWienNewYork wasfromtheoutsetverymuchinterestedinthisproject.Throughtheexcellent collaborationwithSpringer?sSilviaSchilgeriusthechallengesofa?rsteditionfor suchaYearbookseriesweremasteredwithgreatease. CooperationbetweenESPI andSpringerWienNewYorkisintendedtointensifyfurtherwithadedicatedbook seriesonspacepolicy. TheseperspectiveswereadditionalmotivationforESPI?s editorialteamforthis?rsteditionoftheYearbook,whereNicolasPeterauthored Part1,CharlotteMathieueditedPart2andCharlotteMathieuandBlandina BaranespreparedPart3. Valuablecontributionsandsupportwereprovidedinthe earlyplanningphasebySergePlattardandintheeditorialphasebyPierre-Henri Pisani,JulieAbouYehiaandTimSkurbaty. Itiswithgreatcon?dencethatwebring this Yearbook to the attention of decision makers, professionals in industry, researchandsciencedealingwithspaceactivitiesandinternationalrelationsand alsotothebroaderpublic,whichintendstounderstandthepoliciesbehindoneof themostimportantandfascinatingprovincesofmodernsociety:space! Kai-UweSchrogl,CharlotteMathieu,NicolasPeter ESPIeditorialteam vi Tableofcontents Tableofcontents Listofacronyms...xiv Listof?guresandtables ...xxii PART1 TheYearinSpace2006/2007 Chapter1. Europeanspaceactivitiesintheglobal context. NicolasPeter 1.Geopoliticaltrends ...2 1. 1. Globaleconomicoutlook ...2 1. 2. Politicaldevelopmentsin2006/2007...3 1. 2. 1. Europe ...3 1. 2. 2. UnitedStates...4 1. 2. 3. Russia...5 1. 2. 4. Japan...5 1. 2. 5. China...6 1. 2. 6. India...7 1. 3. Internationalsecurity...7 1. 4. Majorhighlightsinscienti?cactivitiesandresearch ...8 1. 5. Mainscienceandtechnologyindicators relevanttospace activities...11 1. 5. 1. Scienceandtechnologyinputs ...11 1. 5. 2. Scienceandtechnologyoutputs...13 2. Worldwidespacepoliciesandstrategies ...16 2. 1. TheUnitedNationssystem...16 2. 1. 1. UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblycommittees...18 2. 1. 2. OtherUnitedNationsbodiesandorgans...

Development is challenged by, at least until 2050, a strong population, more severe environmental strains, growing mobility, and dwindling energy resources. All these factors will lead to serious consequences for humankind. Inadequate agricultural resources, water supply and non renewable energy sources, epidemics, climate change, and natural disasters will further heavily impact human life. The European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) sheds a new light on threats, risks and sustainability by combining approaches from various disciplines. It analyzes what could be the contribution of space tools to predict, manage and mitigate those threats. It aims at demonstrating that space is not a niche but has become an overarching tool in solving today’s problems.

Humans and space When faced with the issue of space exploration, one generally has an idea of the ?elds of study and disciplines that are involved: technology, physics and chemistry, robotics, astronomy and planetary science, space biology and medicine, disciplines which are usually referred to as the ?sciences?. In recent discussions, the human element of space exploration has attracted more and more the interest of the space sciences. As a consequence, adjacent disciplines have gained in relevance in space exploration and space research, in times when human space ?ights are almost part of everyday life. These disciplines include psychology and sociology, but also history, philosophy, anthropology, cultural studies, political sciences and law. The cont- bution of knowledge in these ?elds plays an important role in achieving the next generation of space exploration, where humans will resume exploring the Moon and, eventually, Mars,and wherespacetourism isbeginningtobedeveloped. With regard to technology, one might soon be prepared for this. Much less is this the case with space exploration by humans, rather than by robots. Robotic explorations to other planets across the solar system have developed in the past 50 years, since the beginning of the ?space age? with the presence of humans in nearby space and the landing on the Moon. Space exploration is now not only focused on technological achievements,asitsdevelopmentalsohassocial,culturalandeconomicimpacts. This makes human space exploration a topic to address in a cross-disciplinary manner.

At the time of ?nalising this second volume of the ?Yearbook on Space Policy? which covers the period mid-2007 to mid-2008, Europe is as visible and strong in the area of space activities as never before. Its space probes are present on the Moon, around Mars, and on Saturn?s Moon Titan, and are chasing asteroids and comets; Ariane V is the most successful commercial launch vehicle; and more and more European space applications satellites are in operation. Finally, with the successful launch of the Columbus Orbital Facility (COF) – the most prominent highlight of this period which is also depicted on the cover of this Yearbook – and the ?rst Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Europe has become a decisive player in human space?ight. This is accompanied by new policy initiatives on the ministerial level which have been bringing the European Space Agency and the European Union steadily closer. Europe?s outstanding development and positioning in the space ?eld is based not only on Europe?s successful engineering and scienti?c capabilities and capacities, but also on the forceful political determination of all European actors to maintain and even further their engagement in the use of outer space. And it is this political determination which provides the focus for this ?Yearbook on Space Policy?. The Yearbook describes and analyses the contexts and contents of space policy. Its primary ?eld of investigation is Europe, but it also covers the whole range of global space activities and their in?uence on European endeavours.

Following the first comprehensive transdisciplinary dialogue on humans in outer space which resulted in "Humans in Outer Space - Interdisciplinary Odysseys", the European Science Foundation (ESF), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) have continued and deepened this transdisciplinary dialogue, which can now be found in Humans in Outer Space - Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Going further than regarding humans as better-than-robot tools for exploration, it investigates the human quest for odysseys beyond Earth's atmosphere and reflects on arising issues related to Europe's role among the States conducting human exploration. It provides perspectives related to governance, management of space exploration, space settlements, the role of astronauts in the future as well as related to the encounter of extraterrestrial life.

Following the first comprehensive transdisciplinary dialogue on humans in outer space which resulted in "Humans in Outer Space - Interdisciplinary Odysseys", the European Science Foundation (ESF), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) have continued and deepened this transdisciplinary dialogue, which can now be found in Humans in Outer Space - Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Going further than regarding humans as better-than-robot tools for exploration, it investigates the human quest for odysseys beyond Earth''s atmosphere and reflects on arising issues related to Europe''s role among the States conducting human exploration. It provides perspectives related to governance, management of space exploration, space settlements, the role of astronauts in the future as well as related to the encounter of extraterrestrial life.

The Yearbook on Space Policy aims to be the reference publication analysingspace policy developments. Each year it presents issues and trends in space policyand the space sector as a whole. Its scope is global and its perspective is European.The Yearbook also links space policy with other policy areas. It highlights specificevents and issues, and provides useful insights, data and information on spaceactivities.The Yearbook on Space Policy is edited by the European Space Policy Institute(ESPI) based in Vienna, Austria. It combines in-house research and contributionsof members of the European Space Policy Research and Academic Network(ESPRAN), coordinated by ESPI.The Yearbook is designed for government decision-makers and agencies, industryprofessionals, as well as the service sectors, researchers and scientists and theinterested public.

The Yearbook on Space Policy aims to be the reference publication analysingspace policy developments. Each year it presents issues and trends in space policyand the space sector as a whole. Its scope is global and its perspective is European.The Yearbook also links space policy with other policy areas. It highlights specificevents and issues, and provides useful insights, data and information on spaceactivities.The Yearbook on Space Policy is edited by the European Space Policy Institute(ESPI) based in Vienna, Austria. It combines in-house research and contributionsof members of the European Space Policy Research and Academic Network(ESPRAN), coordinated by ESPI.The Yearbook is designed for government decision-makers and agencies, industryprofessionals, as well as the service sectors, researchers and scientists and theinterested public.

The Yearbook on Space Policy is the reference publication analysing space policy developments. Each year it presents issues and trends in space policy and the space sector as a whole. Its scope is global and its perspective is European. The Yearbook also links space policy with other policy areas. It highlights specific events and issues, and provides useful insights, data and information on space activities. The Yearbook on Space Policy is edited by the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) based in Vienna, Austria. It combines in-house research and contributions of members of the European Space Policy Research and Academic Network (ESPRAN), coordinated by ESPI. The Yearbook is designed for government decision-makers and agencies, industry professionals, as well as the service sectors, researchers and scientists and the interested public.

The Yearbook on Space Policy is the reference publication analysing space policy developments. Each year it presents issues and trends in space policy and the space sector as a whole. Its scope is global and its perspective is European. The Yearbook also links space policy with other policy areas. It highlights specific events and issues, and provides useful insights, data and information on space activities. The Yearbook on Space Policy is edited by the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) based in Vienna, Austria. It combines in-house research and contributions of members of the European Space Policy Research and Academic Network (ESPRAN), coordinated by ESPI. The Yearbook is designed for government decision-makers and agencies, industry professionals, as well as the service sectors, researchers and scientists and the interested public.

The Yearbook on Space Policy is the reference publication analysing space policy developments. Each year it presents issues and trends in space policy and the space sector as a whole. Its scope is global and its perspective is European. The Yearbook also links space policy with other policy areas. It highlights specific events and issues, and provides useful insights, data and information on space activities. The Yearbook on Space Policy is edited by the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) based in Vienna, Austria. It combines in-house research and contributions of members of the European Space Policy Research and Academic Network (ESPRAN), coordinated by ESPI. The Yearbook is designed for government decision-makers and agencies, industry professionals, as well as the service sectors, researchers and scientists and the interested public.

As space applications become central to modern interaction, more and more entities are becoming involved in space activities. Consequently, strategies to establish the coordinated, ethically justifiable and sustainable conduct of space activities have to be found. Such an endeavour requires addressing current questions regarding the use of space, dealing with fair rules in orbit and discussing the way towards achieving truly global engagement on space security issues. The book outlines the current situation and identifies key challenges from the policy perspective. Taking this one step further, it also formulates principles and recommendations for global action. Nineteen eminent personalities from the space sector have united for this project, which is based on a conference organised at the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) in November 2008 in Vienna.