Tharwat F. Tadros - Böcker

This fundamental book on interfacial phenomena forms the basis of application of interface and colloid science to various disperse systems. These include suspensions, emulsions, nano-dispersions, wetting, spreading, deposition and adhesion of particles to surfaces. These systems occur in most industrial applications, such as personal care and cosmetic formulations, pharmaceutical systems particularly for controlled and targeted delivery of drugs, agrochemical formulations and enhancement of their biological performance, paints and coatings as well as most food formulations. These applications are described in volume 2. The text is very valuable for formulation chemists, chemical engineers and technologies who are involved in such applications. In addition this fundamental text is also valuable for research scientists and Ph.D. students investigating various aspects of interface and colloid science.

General introduction - Definition of nanodispersions (nanosuspensions, nanoemulsions, swollen micelles or microemulsions, liposomes and vesicles) and their size range. General description of their colloid stability. Main advantages of nanodispersions and their industrial applications.Preparation of nanosuspensions by top-up process - Nucleation and growth and control of particle size distribution. Factors determining the formation of narrow particle size distribution. Role of surfactants and polymers. Preparation of nano-polymer colloids (lattices) by emulsion and dispersion polymerization. Factors affects the stability of nanosuspensions.Preparation of nanosuspensions by bottom down process - Dispersion of preformed particles in liquids and the need of a wetting agent. Break-up of aggregates and agglomerates by application of high speed stirrers. Reduction of particle size by application of intense energy (microfluidization or bead milling). Maintenance of the colloid stability of the resulting particles. Reduction of Ostwald ripening.Industrial applications of nanosuspensions - Application in pharmacy to enhance bioavailability, Application in sunscreens for UV protection. Application in paints and coatings.Preparation of nanoemulsions by the use of high pressure homogenisers - Principles of emulsion formation and the role of the emulsifier. Selection of emulsifiers. Methods of emulsification and prevention of coalescence during emulsification. Origin of colloid stability of nanoemulsions. Prevention of Ostwald ripeningLow energy methods for nanoemulsion preparation - The phase inversion composition method and the role of mixing the surfactant with oil and water. The phase inversion temperature method for preparation of nanoemulsions. Preparation of nanoemulsions by dilution of microemulsions.Practical examples of nanoemulsions and their industrial application - Nanoemulsions based on non-ionic surfactants and the role of the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance. Effect of oil solubility on the stabilityof nanoemulsions. Nanoemulsions based on polymeric surfactants. Applications in pharmacy and cosmetics.Swollen micelles or microemulsionsDefinition of microemulsions and their size range. Thermodynamic definition of microemulstions. Theories of microemulsion formation and stability. Characterisation of microemulsions using scattering, conductivity and NMR rechniques.Formulation of microemulsions and their industrial applications - Distinction between microemulsions and macroemulsions. Formulation of oil/water and water/oil microemulsions. Selection of emulsifiers for microemulsions. Application of microemulsions in tertiary oil recovery.Liposomes and vesicles - Formation of multilamellar lipid layers (liposomes) by dispersion of lipids in water. Formation of unilamellar vesicles by sonication of the liposomes. Factors responsible for stabilisation of liposomes and vesicles. Use of block copolymers to enhance the stability of vesicles. Applications of liposomes and vesicles in pharmacy and cosmetics.

Surfactants are surface active agents, molecules that have a significant role in emulsions, suspensions, and foams. They find widespread application in personal care, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and the food industry. The main objective of this graduate level textbook is to present an overview of the classification, physical properties, phase behavior, their effects and applications of surfactants, e.g. as emulsifiers, foam stabilizer, in nano- and microemulsions and as wetting agents.

The main objective of this volume is to demonstrate the importance of the fundamental aspects of interfacial phenomena in various industrial applications. The text provides the reader with the knowledge that is essential for the composition of the complex multi-phase systems used in the above mentioned areas of application. It should enable the physical and formulation chemist as well as the chemical engineer in designing the formulation on the basis of a rational approach. It will also enable the formulation scientist to better understanding the factors responsible for producing a stable product with optimum application conditions. The book should also be very useful for teaching the subject of formulation at academic institutions.

Chapter 1 General IntroductionDefinition of emulsions and the role of the emulsifier. Classification based on the nature of the emulsifier. Classification based on the structure of the system. General instability problems with emulsions : creaming/sedimentation, flocculation, Ostwald ripening, coalescence and phase inversion. Importance of emulsions in various industrial applications.Chapter 2 Thermodynamics of Emulsion Formation and BreakdownApplication of the second law of thermodynamics for emulsion formation : Balance of energy and entropy and non-spontaneous formation of emulsions. Breakdown of the emulsion by flocculation and coalescence in the absence of an emulsifier. Role of the emulsifier in preventing flocculation and coalescence by creating an energy barrier resulting from the repulsive energies between the droplets.Chapter 3 Interaction Forces between Emulsion DropletsVan der Waals attraction and its dependence on droplet size, Hamaker constant and separation distance between the droplets. Electrostatic repulsion resulting from the presence of electrical double layers and its dependence on surface (or zeta) potential and electrolyte concentration and valency. Combination of the van der Waals attraction with double layer repulsion and the theory of colloid stability. Steric repulsion resulting from the presence of adsorbed non-ionic surfactants and polymers. Combination of van der Waals attraction with steric repulsion and the theory of steric stabilisation.Chapter 4 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Oil/Water InterfaceThermodynamic analysis of surfactant adsorption and the Gibbs adsorption isotherm. Calculation of the amount of surfactant adsorption and area per surfactant molecule at the interface. Experimental techniques for measuring the interfacial tension.Chapter 5 Mechanism of Emulsification and the Role of the EmulsifierDescription of the factors responsible for droplet deformation and its break-up. Role of surfactant in preventing coalescence during emulsification. Definition of the Gibbs dilational elasticity and the Marangoni effect in preventing coalescence.Chapter 6 Methods of EmulsificationPipe flow, static mixers and high speed stirrers (rotor-stator mixer). Laminar and turbulent flow. Membrane emulsification. High pressure homogenisers and ultrasonic methods.Chapter 7 Selection of EmulsifiersThe hydrophilic-lipophilic-balance (HLB) and its application in surfactant selection. Calculation of HLB numbers and the effect of the nature of the oil phase. The phase inversion temperature (PIT) method for emulsifier selection. The cohesive energy ratio method for emulsifier selection.Chapter 8 Creaming/Sedimentation of Emulsions and its preventionDriving force for creaming/sedimentation: effect of gravity, droplet size and density difference between the oil and continuous phase. Calculation of the rate of creaming/sedimentation in dilute emulsions. Influence of increase of the volume fraction of the disperse phase on the rate of creaming/sedimentation. Reduction of creaming/sedimentation: Balance of the density of the two phases, reduction of droplet size and effect of addition of ''thickeners'.Chapter 9 Flocculation of Emulsions and its PreventionFactors affecting flocculation. Calculation of fast and slow flocculation rate. Definition of stability ratio and its dependence on electrolyte concentration and valency. Definition of the critical coagulation concentration and its dependence on electrolyte valency. Reduction of flocculation by enhancing the repulsive forces.Chapter 10 Ostwald Ripening and its ReductionFactors responsible for Ostwald ripening : difference in solubility between small and large droplets and the Kelvin equation. Calculation of the rate of Ostwald ripening. Reduction of Ostwald ripening by incorporation of a small amount of highly insoluble oil. Reduction of Ostwald ripening by the use of strongly adsorbed polymeric surfactant and enhancement of the Gibbs elasticity.Chapter 11 Emulsion Coalescence and its PreventionDriving force for emulsion coalescence : Thinning and disruption of the liquid film between the droplets. The concept of disjoining pressure for prevention of coalescence. Methods for reduction or elimination of coalescence : Use of mixed surfactant films, use of lamellar liquid crystalline phases and use of polymeric surfactants.Chapter 12 Phase Inversion and its PreventionDistinction between catastrophic and transient phase inversion. Influence of the disperse volume fraction and surfactant HLB number. Explanation of the factors responsible for phase inversion.Chapter 13 Characterisation of EmulsionsMeasurement of droplet size distribution : Optical microscopy and image analysis. Phase contrast and polarising microscopyDiffraction methods. Confocal laser microscopy. Back scattering methodsChapter 14 Industrial Application of Emulsions14.1 Application in Pharmacy14.2 Application in Cosmetics 14.3 Application in Agrochemicals14.4 Application in Paints14.5 Application in the Oil Industry

Formulations starts with a general introduction, explaining interaction forces between particles and droplets, self-assembly systems, polymeric surfactants and nanoemulsions. The second part covers the industrial examples ranging from foams, soaps over to hair care, sunscreen and make-up products. Combines information needed by formulation chemists as well as researchers in the cosmetic industry due the increasing number of products.

Suspension Concentrates is a survey into the theory of the formulation and stabilization of suspensions, elaborating on the breaking of aggregates and agglomerates and the role of dispersing agents on flocculation and electrostatic and steric stabilization. Practical analysis by rheology is discussed. Suspension Concentrates is ideal for research scientists and Ph.D. students investigating chemistry, chemical engineering and colloidal science.

Polymeric Surfactants covers the structure and stability origins of these highly useful surfactants. Adsorption and solution properties in emulsions are discussed based on their underlying thermodynamics and kinetics. Research scientists and Ph.D. students investigating chemistry, chemical engineering and colloidal science will benefit from this text on polymeric surfactants and their value in preparation and stabilization of disperse systems.

Volume 1 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a survey of the theory of colloids in a variety of fields, as well as theircharacterization by rheology. It is an ideal reference work for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners looking for a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces behave.

Volume 2 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a survey into the theory of dispersions in a variety of fields, as well as characterization by rheology. It is an ideal reference work for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners looking for a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces behave in the areas of materials science, chemical engineering, and colloidal science.

Volume 3 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a survey into the applications of colloids in a variety of fields, based on theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. The Handbook provides a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces can be applied in materials science, chemical engineering, and colloidal science. It is ideally suited as reference work for research scientists, universities, and industries.

Volume 4 of the Handbook of Colloid and Interface Science is a survey into the applications of colloids in a variety of fields, based on theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. The Handbook provides a complete understanding of how colloids and interfaces can be applied in materials science, chemical engineering, and colloidal science. It is ideally suited as reference work for research scientists, universities, and industries.

Volume 1 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the theory of formulations in a variety of fields, as well as their rheological characterization. It offers in-depth explanations for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners looking for a complete understanding of how different formulations behave and how to influence their performance.

Volume 2 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the different types of formulations used in the chemical industry and offers numerous real-world examples of foams, gels, latexes etc. It offers in-depth explanations for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners looking for a complete understanding of which type formulation works best for a certain application and why.

Volume 3 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the applications of formulations in a variety of fields, based on the theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. It offers in-depth explanations and a wealth of real-world examples for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners in the fields of Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics and Personal Care.

Volume 4 of Formulation Science and Technology is a survey of the applications of formulations in a variety of fields, based on the theories presented in Volumes 1 and 2. It offers in-depth explanations and a wealth of real-world examples for research scientists, universities, and industry practitioners in the fields of Agrochemicals, Paints and Coatings and Food Colloids.

Formulierungstechnik und Aufbereitung schließt sich der Synthese und Reinigung an, um eine gute Entfaltung eines Wirkstoffes und eine optimale Handels- oder Verkaufsform zu erreichen. Nach einer allgemeinen Einführung, in der die Wechselwirkungskräfte zwischen Partikeln und Tröpfchen, Systeme der Selbstorganisation, polymere Tenside und Nanoemulsionen, befasst sich das Buch mit industriellen Beispielen, die von Schäumen und Seifen bis hin zu Haarpflege-, Sonnenschutz- und Make-up-Produkten reichen. Formulierungen kombiniert Informationen, die sowohl von Formulierungschemikern als auch von Forschern in der kosmetischen Industrie, aufgrund der wachsenden Anzahl von Produkten benötigt werden.

Tenside sind oberflächenaktive Stoffe, Moleküle, die eine wichtige Rolle in Emulsionen, Suspensionen und Schäumen spielen. Sie finden breite Anwendung in der Körperpflege, Kosmetik, Pharmazie, Agrochemie und Lebensmittelindustrie. Ihre Klassifizierung, ihre physikalischen Eigenschaften, ihr Phasenverhalten, ihre Wirkungen und Anwendungen werden in diesem Buch praxisnah behandelt.

Kapitel 1 Allgemeine EinführungDefinition von Emulsionen und die Rolle des Emulgators. Klassifizierung aufgrund der Art des Emulgators. Klassifizierung auf der Grundlage der Struktur des Systems. Allgemeine Instabilitätsprobleme bei Emulsionen: Kremierung/Sedimentation, Ausflockung, Ostwald-Reifung, Koaleszenz und Phasenumkehr. Bedeutung von Emulsionen in verschiedenen industriellen Anwendungen.Kapitel 2 Thermodynamik der Emulsionsbildung und -zersetzungAnwendung des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik auf die Emulsionsbildung: Gleichgewicht von Energie und Entropie und nicht-spontane Bildung von Emulsionen. Zersetzung der Emulsion durch Ausflockung und Koaleszenz in Abwesenheit eines Emulgators. Die Rolle des Emulgators bei der Verhinderung von Ausflockung und Koaleszenz durch die Schaffung einer Energiebarriere, die sich aus den Abstoßungsenergien zwischen den Tröpfchen ergibt.Kapitel 3 Wechselwirkungskräfte zwischen EmulsionströpfchenVan-der-Waals-Anziehung und ihre Abhängigkeit von der Tröpfchengröße, der Hamaker-Konstante und dem Abstand zwischen den Tröpfchen. Elektrostatische Abstoßung aufgrund des Vorhandenseins elektrischer Doppelschichten und ihre Abhängigkeit vom Oberflächenpotential (oder Zeta-Potential) und der Konzentration und Wertigkeit des Elektrolyten. Kombination der van-der-Waals-Anziehung mit der Doppelschichtabstoßung und der Theorie der Kolloidstabilität. Sterische Abstoßung aufgrund der Anwesenheit adsorbierter nichtionischer Tenside und Polymere. Kombination der van-der-Waals-Attraktion mit der sterischen Abstoßung und die Theorie der sterischen Stabilisierung.Kapitel 4 Adsorption von Tensiden an der Öl/Wasser-GrenzflächeThermodynamische Analyse der Adsorption von Tensiden und die Gibbs'sche Adsorptionsisotherme. Berechnung der Menge der Tensidadsorption und der Fläche pro Tensidmolekül an der Grenzfläche. Experimentelle Techniken zur Messung der Grenzflächenspannung.Kapitel 5 Mechanismus der Emulgierung und die Rolle des EmulgatorsBeschreibung der Faktoren, die für die Verformung der Tröpfchen und ihr Auseinanderbrechen verantwortlich sind. Rolle des Tensids bei der Verhinderung der Koaleszenz während der Emulgierung. Definition der Gibbs'schen Dilatationselastizität und des Marangoni-Effekts bei der Verhinderung der Koaleszenz.Kapitel 6 Methoden der EmulgierungRohrströmung, statische Mischer und Hochgeschwindigkeitsrührer (Rotor-Stator-Mischer). Laminare und turbulente Strömung. Emulgieren mit Membranen. Hochdruckhomogenisatoren und Ultraschallverfahren.Kapitel 7 Auswahl der EmulgatorenDas Hydrophil-Lipophil-Gleichgewicht (HLB) und seine Anwendung bei der Auswahl von Tensiden. Berechnung der HLB-Zahlen und die Auswirkungen der Art der Ölphase. Die Methode der Phaseninversionstemperatur (PIT) zur Auswahl von Emulgatoren. Die Methode des Kohäsionsenergieverhältnisses für die Emulgatorauswahl.Kapitel 8 Aufrahmung/Sedimentation von Emulsionen und ihre VerhinderungTriebkraft für die Cremation/Sedimentation: Einfluss der Schwerkraft, der Tröpfchengröße und des Dichteunterschieds zwischen Öl und kontinuierlicher Phase. Berechnung der Cremierungs-/Sedimentierungsrate in verdünnten Emulsionen. Einfluss der Erhöhung des Volumenanteils der dispersen Phase auf die Kremierungs-/Sedimentationsrate. Verminderung der Kremierung/Sedimentation: Gleichgewicht der Dichte der beiden Phasen, Verringerung der Tröpfchengröße und Wirkung der Zugabe von "Verdickungsmitteln".Kapitel 9 Ausflockung von Emulsionen und ihre VerhinderungFaktoren, die die Ausflockung beeinflussen. Berechnung der schnellen und langsamen Ausflockungsrate. Definition des Stabilitätsverhältnisses und seine Abhängigkeit von der Elektrolytkonzentration und der Wertigkeit. Definition der kritischen Koagulationskonzentration und ihre Abhängigkeit von der Elektrolytauflösung. Verringerung der Ausflockung durch Verstärkung der Abstoßungskräfte.Kapitel 10 Ostwald-Reifung und ihre VerringerungFaktoren, die für die Ostwald-Reifung verantwortlich sind: Unterschiedliche Löslichkeit zwischen kleinen und großen Tropfen und die Kelvin-Gleichung. Berechnung der Rate der Ostwald-Reifung. Verringerung der Ostwald-Reifung durch Zugabe einer kleinen Menge hochunlöslichen Öls. Verringerung der Ostwald-Reifung durch die Verwendung von stark adsorbierten polymeren Tensiden und Erhöhung der Gibbs-Elastizität.Kapitel 11 Emulsionskoaleszenz und ihre Verhinderung der Emulsionskoaleszenz: Verdünnung und Unterbrechung des Flüssigkeitsfilms zwischen den Tröpfchen. Das Konzept des Trennungsdrucks zur Verhinderung der Koaleszenz. Methoden zur Verringerung oder Beseitigung der Koaleszenz: Verwendung von gemischten Tensidfilmen, Verwendung von lamellaren flüssigkristallinen Phasen und Verwendung von polymeren Tensiden.Kapitel 12 Phaseninversion und ihre VerhinderungUnterscheidung zwischen katastrophaler und transienter Phaseninversion. Einfluss des dispersen Volumenanteils und der HLB-Zahl des Tensids. Erläuterung der für die Phaseninversion verantwortlichen Faktoren.Kapitel 13 Charakterisierung von EmulsionenMessung der Tröpfchengrößenverteilung : Optische Mikroskopie und Bildanalyse. Phasenkontrast- und PolarisationsmikroskopieBeugungsmethoden. Konfokale Lasermikroskopie. RückstreuungsmethodenKapitel 14 Industrielle Anwendung von Emulsionen14.1 Anwendung in der Pharmazie14.2 Anwendung in der Kosmetik14.3 Anwendung in der Agrochemie14.4 Anwendung in der Farbenindustrie14.5 Anwendung in der Ölindustrie

While currently available titles either focus on the basics or on very specific subtopics, this text meets the need for a comprehensive survey of surfactants and their properties, with a strong emphasis on applications and their correlation to the fundamentals.The author covers their classification, physical properties, phase behavior, adsorption, effects - such as wetting, spreading and adhesion - as well as industrial applications in personal care and cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and food products.Professor Tadros is a well-known expert on the topic of surfactants, with much experience in colloid science. Here, he uses his industrial experience to close the gap between fundamentals of surfactants and their relevance and applications in practice.

A dispersion is a system of unmixable phases in which one phase is continuous and at least one is finely distributed. Examples are found in many industrial applications, including emulsions, suspensions, foams, and geld. The control of their flow characteristics - rheology - is essential in their preparation, long-term physical stability and application.Filling the need for a practical, up-to-date book connecting the stability/instability of the dispersion to its rheological behavior, this title aids in understanding the principles of rheology and the techniques that can be applied. From the contents:* General Introduction* Interparticle Interactions and Their Combination* Principles of Viscoelastic Behavior* Rheology of Suspensions* Rheology of Emulsions* Rheology of Modifiers, Thickeners, and Gels* Use of Rheological Measurements for Assessment and Prediction of the Long-Term Physical Stability of Formulations (Creaming and Sedimentation)