World Scientific Series in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology – serie

Soft materials with nanometer scale aspects have been heavily used in biomedical science. Instead of providing a broad introduction of soft materials and their biomedical applications, this book focuses on the preparation of molecular assemblies of biotechnologically relevant biomimetic systems with an emphasis on medical applications.

This book is indexed in Chemical Abstracts ServiceSoft and bio-nanomaterials offer a tremendously rich behavior due to the diversity and tailorability of their structures. Built from polymers, nanoparticles, small and large molecules, peptoids and other nanoscale building blocks, such materials exhibit exciting functions, either intrinsically or through the engineering of their organization and combination of blocks. Thus, it is not surprising that a variety of challenges, for example, in energy storage, environment protection, advanced manufacturing, purification and healthcare, can be addressed using these materials. The recent advances in understanding the behavior of soft matter and biomaterials are being actively translated into functional materials systems and devices, which take advantages of newly discovered and specifically created morphologies with desired properties. This major reference work presents a detailed overview of recent research developments on fundamental and application-inspired aspects of soft and bio-nanomaterials and their emerging functions, and will be divided into four volumes: Vol 1: Soft Matter under Geometrical Confinement: From Fundamentals at Planar Surfaces and Interfaces to Functionalities of Nanoporous Materials; Vol 2: Polymers on the Nanoscale: Nano-structured Polymers and Their Applications; Vol 3: Bio-Inspired Nanomaterials: Nanomaterials Built from Biomolecules and Using Bio-derived Principles; Vol 4: Nanomedicine: Nanoscale Materials in Nano/Bio Medicine.

Molecular Electronics is self-contained and unified in its presentation. It can be used as a textbook on nanoelectronics by graduate students and advanced undergraduates studying physics and chemistry. In addition, included in this new edition are previously unpublished material that will help researchers gain a deeper understanding into the basic concepts involved in the field of molecular electronics.

Advanced Characterization of Nanostructured Materials — Probing the Structure and Dynamics with Synchrotron X-Rays and Neutrons is a collection of chapters which review the characterization of the structure and internal dynamics of a wide variety of nanostructured materials using various synchrotron X-ray and neutron scattering techniques. It is intended for graduate students and researchers who might be interested in learning about and applying these methods. The authors are well-known practitioners in their fields of research who provide detailed and authoritative accounts of how these techniques have been applied to study systems ranging from thin films and monolayers on solid surfaces and at liquid-air, liquid-liquid and solid-liquid interfaces; nanostructured composite materials; battery materials, and catalytic materials. While there have been a great many books published on nanoscience, there are relatively few that have discussed in one volume detailed synchrotron X-ray and neutron methods for advanced characterization of nanomaterials in thin films, composite materials, catalytic and battery materials and at interfaces. This book should provide an incentive and a reference for researchers in nanomaterials for using these techniques as a powerful way to characterize their samples. It should also help to popularize the use of synchrotron and neutron facilities by the nanoscience community.

World Scientific Reference on Plasmonic Nanomaterials: Principles, Design and Bio-applications is a book collection that encompasses multiple aspects of the exciting and timely field of nanoplasmonics, under the coordination of international plasmonic nanomaterials expert, Dr Luis Liz-Marzán. Plasmonics has a long history, from stained glass in ancient cathedrals, through pioneering investigations by Michael Faraday, all the way into the nanotechnology era, where it blossomed into an extremely active field of research with potential applications in a wide variety of technologies.Given the breadth of the materials, phenomena and applications related to plasmonics, this Reference Set offers a collection of chapters within dedicated volumes, focusing on the description of selected phenomena, with an emphasis in chemistry as an enabling tool for the fabrication of, often sophisticated, plasmonic nanoarchitectures and biomedicine as the target application.Basic principles of surface plasmon resonances are described, as well as those mechanisms related to related phenomena such as surface-enhanced spectroscopies or plasmonic chirality. Under the guidance of theoretical models, wet chemistry methods have been implemented toward the synthesis of a wide variety of nanoparticles with different compositions and tailored morphology. But often the optimal nanoarchitecture requires post-synthesis treatments, including functionalization of nanoparticle surfaces, application of external stimuli toward self-assembly into well-defined supraparticle structures and so-called supercrystals. All such nanomaterials can find applications in various biomedical aspects, most often in relation to diagnosis, through either the detection of disease biomarkers at extremely low concentrations or the design of bioimaging methods for in vivo monitoring. Additionally, novel therapeutic tools can also profit from plasmonic nanomaterials, such as photothermal therapy or nanocatalysis.The reference set thus offers comprehensive information of an extremely active subset within the world of plasmonic nanomaterials and their applications, which aims at not just collecting existing knowledge but also promoting further research and technology transfer into the market and the clinic.

Water is an indispensable resource for our society. Essential to sustaining life and economic prosperity, water is also the basic component for manufacturing almost everything to keep society alive, including energy, food, clothing, cars, and electronics, among many other examples. It is, thus, an integral part of our lives beyond simply quenching our thirst. In addition, our future economy and security highly depend upon the availability of clean water. Yet given its critical importance, there is a limited supply of renewable freshwater across the globe and there is no substitute. Global population and economic growth, urbanization, and climate change further exacerbate the increasing stress on freshwater supplies. As such, society urgently needs to find the scientific and engineering solutions to more efficiently manage our precious water resources. The volumes of this multi-volume reference cover the latest scientific advancements and solutions in managing and treating this crucial resource.Related Link(s)

Nanomaterials have become a key component for energy-related applications. Their design principle, synthesis and applications are well discussed in various scientific and engineering books, but a gap remains in discussions regarding the application of cutting-edge X-ray techniques to these materials. This volume provides insights from the latest development of X-ray techniques to investigate nanomaterials in specific energy fields, bridging the gap between X-ray analytical scientists and material researchers.We aim to provide researchers with a tool to choose suitable X-ray techniques, carry them out with the right procedure, and analyze the data to give the best reliable results. The approach is microscopic and specific. Among the applications emphasized by the chapters in this book are x-ray techniques in heterogeneous catalysis, electrocatalysis for fuel cells, photocatalysis for water splitting and carbon dioxide reduction, organic photovoltaics, and other energy-related applications.

This book concentrates on the emerging area of the utilization of (solar) photon energy for catalyzing useful chemical reactions (also called artificial photosynthesis) including water splitting, CO2 reduction, selective epoxidation, selective alcohol oxidation, coupling reactions, etc. The chapters in this book cover topics ranging from materials design at nanometer scale to nanomaterials synthesis to photocatalytically chemical conversion. This book can serve as a useful reference for those new to this field of research or already engaged in it, from graduate students to postdoctoral fellows and practicing researchers.

"This is one of the best available graduate-level textbooks on electronic transport at the nanoscale. Its unique feature is providing a thorough and completely self-contained treatment of several theoretical formalisms for treating the transport problem. As such, the book is useful not only for the graduate students working in the field of nanoscale electrical transport, but also for the researchers who wish to expand their knowledge of various fundamental issues associated with this rapidly developing field. Of particular note are deep physical insights accompanying the rigorous mathematical derivations in each of the chapters, as well as the clear statement of all the approximations involved in a particular theoretical formalism. This winning combination makes the book very accessible to a reader with basic knowledge of quantum mechanics, solid state theory and thermodynamics/statistical mechanics. I give this book the highest recommendation." [Read Full Review]Serfei A EgorovUniveristy of Virginia, USAThis book is aimed at senior undergraduates, graduate students and researchers interested in quantitative understanding and modeling of nanomaterial and device physics. With the rapid slow-down of semiconductor scaling that drove information technology for decades, there is a pressing need to understand and model electron flow at its fundamental molecular limits. The purpose of this book is to enable such a deconstruction needed to design the next generation memory, logic, sensor and communication elements. Through numerous case studies and topical examples relating to emerging technology, this book connects 'top down' classical device physics taught in electrical engineering classes with 'bottom up' quantum and many-body transport physics taught in physics and chemistry. The book assumes no more than a nodding acquaintance with quantum mechanics, in addition to knowledge of freshman level mathematics. Segments of this book are useful as a textbook for a course in nano-electronics.

"This is one of the best available graduate-level textbooks on electronic transport at the nanoscale. Its unique feature is providing a thorough and completely self-contained treatment of several theoretical formalisms for treating the transport problem. As such, the book is useful not only for the graduate students working in the field of nanoscale electrical transport, but also for the researchers who wish to expand their knowledge of various fundamental issues associated with this rapidly developing field. Of particular note are deep physical insights accompanying the rigorous mathematical derivations in each of the chapters, as well as the clear statement of all the approximations involved in a particular theoretical formalism. This winning combination makes the book very accessible to a reader with basic knowledge of quantum mechanics, solid state theory and thermodynamics/statistical mechanics. I give this book the highest recommendation." [Read Full Review]Serfei A EgorovUniveristy of Virginia, USAThis book is aimed at senior undergraduates, graduate students and researchers interested in quantitative understanding and modeling of nanomaterial and device physics. With the rapid slow-down of semiconductor scaling that drove information technology for decades, there is a pressing need to understand and model electron flow at its fundamental molecular limits. The purpose of this book is to enable such a deconstruction needed to design the next generation memory, logic, sensor and communication elements. Through numerous case studies and topical examples relating to emerging technology, this book connects 'top down' classical device physics taught in electrical engineering classes with 'bottom up' quantum and many-body transport physics taught in physics and chemistry. The book assumes no more than a nodding acquaintance with quantum mechanics, in addition to knowledge of freshman level mathematics. Segments of this book are useful as a textbook for a course in nano-electronics.

In this book, the synthesis and applications of recent nanomaterials are discussed and reviewed in detail. The scope of the book covers from nanocrystals and their self-assembly, synthesis and applications of optically active porphyrin particles, and synthesis and applications of carbon nanodots. Depending on the categories of the materials, detailed driving forces to self-assembly of the cluster or arrays are discussed. Finally, major applications of each category nanomaterial are discussed.Nanomaterials discussed in this book are important building blocks for nanoelectronic and nanophotonic device fabrications. Methods to synthesize and functionalize them are crucial to enable their applications in these areas. This book provides readers with detailed description and discussions on synthesis and functionalization of recent optically active nanomaterials. This book is an important tool for researchers in the nanomaterial field. It will be also a great reference for college students to master overall knowledge in the field.

Molecular Electronics is self-contained and unified in its presentation. It can be used as a textbook on nanoelectronics by graduate students and advanced undergraduates studying physics and chemistry. In addition, included in this new edition are previously unpublished material that will help researchers gain a deeper understanding into the basic concepts involved in the field of molecular electronics.

Metamaterials represent a new emerging innovative field of research which has shown rapid acceleration over the last couple of years. In this handbook, we present the richness of the field of metamaterials in its widest sense, describing artificial media with sub-wavelength structure for control over wave propagation in four volumes.Volume 1 focuses on the fundamentals of electromagnetic metamaterials in all their richness, including metasurfaces and hyperbolic metamaterials. Volume 2 widens the picture to include elastic, acoustic, and seismic systems, whereas Volume 3 presents nonlinear and active photonic metamaterials. Finally, Volume 4 includes recent progress in the field of nanoplasmonics, used extensively for the tailoring of the unit cell response of photonic metamaterials.In its totality, we hope that this handbook will be useful for a wide spectrum of readers, from students to active researchers in industry, as well as teachers of advanced courses on wave propagation.

The World Scientific Reference of Hybrid Materials is a set of 3 volumes, which covers the fascinating area of materials science at the intersection between purely polymeric, organic or inorganic materials. The rapidly developing research on hybrid materials is largely driven by the steadily increasing need of multifunctional materials in various branches of technology. However, much of the research is also driven by the curiosity of the researchers and the long lasting wish to merge the most beneficial properties of the various materials into one. The flexibility of polymers could, for example, be merged with the electronic conductivity of metals or the mechanical resistance of ceramics, which will be of great value for the industries.This reference covers the areas of synthesis of such hybrid materials, which take benefit from each of the consisting ingredients, and overviews some of the emerging applications based on the materials. Much of the current research is still in its infancy, but hybrid materials are already now considered to be the key enabler for important future developments, for example flexible electronics. With this perspective, this reference aims at giving the general public an overview over the topics of relevance in this field, but also attracting new researchers to this intriguing scientific area.

This comprehensive book set includes four volumes, covering the methods and protocols for the synthesis, fabrication, and characterization of nanomaterials. The first two books introduce the solution phase and gas synthesis approaches for nanomaterials, providing a number of most widely used protocols for each nanomaterial. An exhaustive list of nanomaterials are included, which are arranged according to the atomic number of the main element in the compound for easy search. For each material, the protocols are categorized according to the morphology of the nanostructure. A detailed reference is included in each protocol to point the readers to the source of the protocol. The third book describes many unconventional methods for the fabrication of nanostructures, including lithography and printing, self-assembly, chemical transformation, templated synthesis, electrospinning, laser induced synthesis, flame and plasma synthesis, and atomic layer deposition processes. The fourth book covers the typical methods for structural characterization of nanomaterials, including electron diffraction, electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy, X-ray diffraction, in-situ and operando X-ray techniques, X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, static and dynamic light scattering, vibrational characterization methods, and NMR spectroscopy. In addition to the introduction of the basic operational principles of these tools, the book focuses explicitly on how they can be applied for analyzing nanomaterials. The handbook is a complete reference that can provide readers easily accessible information on how to synthesize and characterize nanomaterials desired for their target applications.

This book provides a comprehensive overview of the rapidly developing field of molecular electronics. It focuses on our present understanding of the electrical conduction in single-molecule circuits and provides a thorough introduction to the experimental techniques and theoretical concepts. It will also constitute as the first textbook-like introduction to both the experiment and theory of electronic transport through single atoms and molecules. In this sense, this publication will prove invaluable to both researchers and students interested in the field of nanoelectronics and nanoscience in general.Molecular Electronics is self-contained and unified in its presentation. It may be used as a textbook on nanoelectronics by graduate students and advanced undergraduates studying physics and chemistry. In addition, included are previously unpublished material that will help researchers gain a deeper understanding into the basic concepts involved in the field of molecular electronics.

This is the 2nd edition of the original “Nanostructures and Nanomaterials” written by Guozhong Cao and published by Imperial College Press in 2004.This important book focuses not only on the synthesis and fabrication of nanostructures and nanomaterials, but also includes properties and applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials, particularly inorganic nanomaterials. It provides balanced and comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals and processing techniques with regard to synthesis, characterization, properties, and applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials. Both chemical processing and lithographic techniques are presented in a systematic and coherent manner for the synthesis and fabrication of 0-D, 1-D, and 2-D nanostructures, as well as special nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and ordered mesoporous oxides. The book will serve as a general introduction to nanomaterials and nanotechnology for teaching and self-study purposes.

This work covers new developments in the field of molecular nanomagnetism, complementing previous books in this area (for example the volume by Gatteschi, Sessoli and Villain on Single Molecule Magnets). The book is written by experts in the field and is intended as a compilation of critical reviews of new areas rather than a comprehensive text.

This is the 2nd edition of the original “Nanostructures and Nanomaterials” written by Guozhong Cao and published by Imperial College Press in 2004.This important book focuses not only on the synthesis and fabrication of nanostructures and nanomaterials, but also includes properties and applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials, particularly inorganic nanomaterials. It provides balanced and comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals and processing techniques with regard to synthesis, characterization, properties, and applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials. Both chemical processing and lithographic techniques are presented in a systematic and coherent manner for the synthesis and fabrication of 0-D, 1-D, and 2-D nanostructures, as well as special nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and ordered mesoporous oxides. The book will serve as a general introduction to nanomaterials and nanotechnology for teaching and self-study purposes.

Following the striking discovery of carbon fullerenes and carbon nanotubes, it was realized by the author and his teammates in 1992 that such nanostructures are not unique to carbon. In fact, hollow closed structures are common to probably most if not all inorganic compounds with layered structures, like WS2, MoSe2, BN, NiCl2, Cs2O and many others. These highly anisotropic compounds suffer from inherent instability when prepared in nano-sizes and close on themselves to form hollow closed structures in the form of inorganic fullerene-like (IF) nanoparticles or nanotubules (INT).The book takes the reader from the discovery stage, where some fundamental ideas in this field were developed, through the systematic effort to synthesize IF and INT in larger amounts and elucidate their structure. In a few cases, like BN nanotubes and WS2 IF nanoparticles, new strategies permitted synthesis of macroscopic amounts and subsequently systematic study of their properties, offering thereby numerous applications. The reader is taken through this never-ending evolutionary process with a few recent examples demonstrated. The field stands in the crossroads between solid state inorganic chemistry, nanotechnology, materials chemistry and nanomechanical engineering.

This unique volume provides a broad introduction to plasmon resonances in nanoparticles and their novel applications. Here, plasmon resonances are treated as an eigenvalue problem for specific boundary integral equations and general physical properties of plasmon spectrum are studied in detail. The coupling of incident radiation to specific plasmon modes, the time dynamics of their excitation and dephasing are also analytically treated. Finally, the applications of plasmon resonances to SERS, light controllability (gating) of plasmon resonances in semiconductor nanoparticles, the use of plasmon resonances in thermally assisted magnetic recording (TAMR), as well as in all-optical magnetic recording and for enhancement of magneto-optic effects are presented.

Global warming, pollution, food and water shortage, cyberspace insecurity, over-population, land erosion, and an overburdened health care system are major issues facing the human race and our planet. These challenges have presented a mandate to develop “natural” or “green” technologies using nature and the living system as a guide to rationally design processes, devices, and systems. This approach has given rise to a new paradigm, one in which innovation goes hand-in-hand with less waste, less pollution, and less invasiveness to life on earth. Bioinspiration has also led to the development of technologies that mimic the hierarchical complexity of biological systems, leading to novel highly efficient, more reliable multifunctional materials, devices, and systems that can perform multiple tasks at one time. This multi-volume handbook focuses on the application of biomimetics and bioinspiration in medicine and engineering to produce miniaturized multi-functional materials, devices, and systems to perform complex tasks. Our understanding of complex biological systems at different length scales has increased dramatically as our ability to observe nature has expanded from macro to molecular scale, leading to the rational biologically-driven design to find solution to technological problems in medicine and engineering.The following three-volume set covers the fields of bioinspired materials, electromechanical systems developed from concepts inspired by nature, and tissue models respectively.The first volume focuses on the rational design of nano- and micro-structured hierarchical materials inspired by the relevant characteristics in living systems, such as the self-cleaning ability of lotus leaves and cicadas' wings; the superior walking ability of water striders; the anti-fogging function of mosquitoes' eyes; the water-collecting ability of Namib Desert Beetles and spider silk; the high adhesivity of geckos' feet and rose petals; the high adhesivity of mussels in wet aquatic environments; the anisotropic wetting of butterflies' wings; the anti-reflection capabilities of cicadas' wings; the self-cleaning functionality of fish scales; shape anisotropy of intracellular particles; the dielectric properties of muscles; the light spectral characteristics of plant leaves; the regeneration and self-healing ability of earthworms; the self-repairing ability of lotus leaves; the broadband reflectivity of moths' eyes; the multivalent binding, self-assembly and responsiveness of cellular systems; the biomineral formation in bacteria, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates; the multi-layer structure of skin; the organization of tissue fibers; DNA structures with metal-mediated artificial base pairs; and the anisotropic microstructure of jellyfish mesogloea. In this volume, sensor and microfluidic technologies combined with surface patterning are explored for the diagnosis and monitoring of diseases. The high throughput combinatorial testing of biomaterials in regenerative medicine is also covered.The second volume presents nature-oriented studies and developments in the field of electromechanical devices and systems. These include actuators and robots based on the movement of muscles, algal antenna and photoreception; the non-imaging light sensing system of sea stars; the optical system of insect ocellus; smart nanochannels and pumps in cell membranes; neuromuscular and sensory devices that mimic the architecture of peripheral nervous system; olfaction-based odor sensing; cilia-mimetic microfluidic systems; the infrared sensory system of pyrophilous insects; ecologically inspired multizone temperature control systems; cochlea and surface acoustic wave resonators; crickets' cercal system and flow sensing abilities; locusts' wings and flapping micro air vehicles; the visual motion sensing of flying insects; hearing aid devices based on the human cochlea; the geometric perception of tortoises and pigeons; the organic matter sensing capability of cats and dogs; and the silent flight of rats. The third volume features engineered models of biological tissues. These include engineered matrices to mimic cancer stem cell niches; in vitro models for bone regeneration; models of muscle tissue that enable the study of cardiac infarction and myopathy; 3D models for the differentiation of embryonic stem cells; bioreactors for in vitro cultivation of mammalian cells; human lung, liver and heart tissue models; topographically-defined cell culture models; ECM mimetic tissue printing; biomimetic constructs for regeneration of soft tissues; and engineered constructs for the regeneration of musculoskeletal and corneal tissue.This three-volume set is a must-have for anyone keen to understand the complexity of biological systems and how that complexity can be mimicked to engineer novel materials, devices and systems to solve pressing technological challenges of the twenty-first century.Key Features:The only handbook that covers all aspects of biomimetics and bioinspiration, including materials, mechanics, signaling and informaticsContains 248 colored figures

This book is a collection of the works of leading experts worldwide in the rapidly developing fields of plasmonics and metamaterials. These developments are promising to revolutionize ways of generating, controlling and processing light in the nanoscale. The technological applications range from nano-lasers to optical nano-waveguides to artificial media with unusual and exotic optical properties unattainable in natural materials. The volume cuts across all relevant disciplines and covers experiments, measurements, fabrication, physical and mathematical analysis, as well as computer simulation.

Efficiency and life time of solar cells, energy and power density of the batteries, and costs of the fuel cells alike cannot be improved unless the complex electronic, optoelectronic, and ionic mechanisms underpinning operation of these materials and devices are understood on the nanometer level of individual defects. Only by probing these phenomena locally can we hope to link materials structure and functionality, thus opening pathway for predictive modeling and synthesis. While structures of these materials are now accessible on length scales from macroscopic to atomic, their functionality has remained Terra Incognitae. In this volume, we provide a summary of recent advances in scanning probe microscopy studies of local functionality of energy materials and devices ranging from photovoltaics to batteries, fuel cells, and energy harvesting systems. Recently emergent SPM modes and combined SPM-electron microscopy approaches are also discussed. Contributions by internationally renowned leaders in the field describe the frontiers in this important field.

The book highlights recent prominent results in the domain of the synthesis of new polyoxometalates with a specific attention to polyoxothioanions, and provides some novelties and perspectives in selected domains such as magnetism, luminescence and nanochemistry, and macroions self-assembly in solutions. The case of “one-pot” syntheses often used and reported in POMs synthesis is studied in terms of more complex solution speciation processes related to highly dynamical situation connected to factors such as pH, ionic strength, reaction time, temperature, counterion nature, concentration of starting materials, presence of electron donors and redox potentials. The behavior of macroions (2nm-6nm size range) in solution is shown to be quite different from the simple ionic solution or colloidal systems (Debye-Huckel model). Their self-assembling into a single-layered, spherical, hollow vesicle structure, namely the “blackberry” structure, is clearly described. Examples of spin clusters with tunable interactions are given and single molecule magnets based on POMs are specifically tackled. Besides paramagnetic transition metal centres and lanthanoid ions encapsulated in archetypal lacunary polyoxoanions, magnetically functionalized Kleperates are described, their discovery tracing back nearly 15 years.

The field of pore scale phenomena is now emerging as one of the frontiers of science and many engineering disciplines. Transport phenomena in the subsurface of the earth play key roles in the energy and environmental domains. For example, the shale gas and oil boom is revolutionizing the world's energy portfolio. Pore scale phenomena from the nanoscale to mesoscale dominate the extraction of these resources. Similarly in the environmental domain, pore storage and pore-scale physics affect the availability of water resources and protecting its quality. Water flow and vapor transport in the pores near the land surface is critical to understanding soil water evaporation in the context of local and global hydrologic cycles affecting climate and climate change.Pore scale phenomena similarly play critical roles in the domain of materials science and biology. For example, many energy devices and membrane technologies are controlled by the physical and chemical properties of the pores. Identifying and analyzing the properties of these pores has emerged as a frontier of characterization science.This book provides, for the first time, a comprehensive overview of the fascinating interrelationship between engineering and science. The authors and contributors are recognized experts from the faculty of the Colorado School of Mines, Northwestern and Stanford. This book will appeal to earth and environmental scientists, materials scientists, physicists and chemists.

Molecular bioelectronics is a field in strong evolution at the frontier of life and materials sciences. The term is utilized in a broad context to emphasize a unique blend of electronics and biotechnology which is seen as the best way to achieve many objectives of industrial and scientific relevance, including biomolecular engineering, bioelectronic devices, materials and sensors capable of optimal hardware efficiency and intelligence and molecular miniaturization.