Vertebrate Life

F. Harvey Pough, Professor Emeritus at Rochester Institute of Technology, is a herpetologist, specializing in environmental and evolutionary physiology, a past president of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, and the senior author of textbooks on Herpetology and Vertebrate Zoology. He has taught courses in Animal Behavior, Ecology, Herpetology, Human Biology, Introductory Biology, Physiological Ecology, and Vertebrate Zoology.William E. Bemis is Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Cornell University and Faculty Curator of Ichthyology at the Cornell University Museum of Vertebrates. He has studied the anatomy, systematics, and evolution of extant and fossil vertebrates for 50 years with a focus on fishes. He currently teaches Vertebrate Biology, Ichthyology, and Herpetology.Betty McGuire is a retired Senior Lecturer from the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Cornell University. She has studied social behavior, reproduction, and ecology of small mammals and currently studies behavior of domestic dogs. She coauthored textbooks on Animal Behavior and Human Biology, and taught courses in Vertebrate Biology, Mammalogy, Human Biology, Animal Behavior, Evolution, and Introductory Biology.Christine M. Janis is Professor Emerita at Brown University, USA, and currently an Honorary Professor at the University of Bristol, UK. She is a mammalian paleobiologist who has studied the feeding and locomotion of Cenozoic mammals, especially ungulates (hoofed mammals) and kangaroos, and their paleobiology in the context of climatic and environmental change. She has taught courses in Comparative Anatomy and Vertebrate Paleontology.

“I really like the summary component of Pough et al. This will be extremely helpful for students to focus on the big picture points moving forward.” -Carly Anne York, Lenoir-Rhyne University

• Preface Chapter 1. Diversity, Classification, and Evolution of Vertebrates 1.1 The Vertebrate Story --Binominal nomenclature --Extant vertebrate groups 1.2 Phylogenetic Systematics 1.3 Applying Phylogenetic Criteria --Evaluating possible phylogenies --Molecules and morphology --The problem of dating --Dagger (†) convention adopted in this book 1.4 Using Phylogenetic Trees --Extant phylogenetic brackets --Paraphyly --Crown and stem groups 1.5 Genetic Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change --Phenotypes and fitness --Developmental regulatory genes 1.6 Epigenetic Effects 1.7 Earth History and Vertebrate Evolution Chapter 2. What Is a Vertebrate? 2.1 Vertebrates in Relation to Other Animals ? 2.2 Characteristics of Chordates ? --Chordate origins and evolution? --Extant nonvertebrate chordates? 2.3 What Distinguishes a Vertebrate? ? 2.4 Vertebrate Embryonic Development ? --Development of the body? --Development of the pharyngeal region? --Development of the brain? --Other neurogenic tissues of vertebrates? 2.5 Vertebrate Tissues ? --Adult tissue types --Mineralized tissues 2.6 Vertebrate Organ Systems --Integumentary system --Skeletal system --Muscular system --Nervous system and sense organs --Endocrine system --Respiratory system --Circulatory system --Digestive system --Excretory and reproductive systemsChapter 3. Jawless Vertebrates and the Origin of Gnathostomes 3.1 Earliest Evidence of Vertebrates --Enigmas: †Conodonts and †Tullimonstrum ---Early mineralized tissues --Environment of early vertebrate evolution 3.2 Cyclostomes: Extant Jawless Vertebrate --Characters of cyclostomes --Hagfishes: Myxiniformes --Lampreys: Petromyzontiformes 3.3 Jawless Osteognathostomes 3.4 Gnathostome Body Plan --Gnathostome skeletons --What about soft anatomical features? 3.5 Origin of Jaws --Hypotheses of jaw origins --Importance of the nose --Selective value of jaws 3.6 Origin of Paired Appendages --Fin development and the lateral somitic frontier --Advantages of fins 3.7 Extinct Paleozoic Jawed Fishes Chapter 4. Living in Water 4.1 Aquatic Environment --Obtaining oxygen from water using gill --Obtaining oxygen from air using lungs and other respiratory structure --Adjusting buoyancy 4.2 Sensory World of Aquatic Vertebrates --Vision --Chemosensation: Olfaction and taste --Detecting water displacement --Hearing and equilibrium --Electroreception and electrogenesis 4.3 Maintaining an Internal Environment --Nitrogenous wastes and kidney --Osmoregulation --Regulation of ions and body fluids 4.4 Osmoregulation in Different Environments --Marine cartilaginous fishes and coelacanths --Marine teleosts --Freshwater teleosts and lissamphibians --Euryhaline vertebratesChapter 5. Geography and Ecology of the Paleozoic 5.1 Deep Time --The Precambrian world --The Paleozoic 5.2 Continental Geography --Continental drift and plate tectonics --Shifting continents of the Paleozoic --Shifting continents and changing climates 5.3 Paleozoic Climates 5.4 Paleozoic Ecosystems --Aquatic life --Terrestrial flora --Terrestrial fauna 5.5 Extinctions Chapter 6 Origin and Radiation of Chondrichthyans 6.1 Acanthodii 6.2 Chondrichthyes --Habitats and diversity --Placoid scales --Cartilaginous skeleton --Teeth and tooth plates --Jaws and jaw suspension --Internal fertilization and claspers --Distinctive soft tissue and physiological features 6.3 Euchondrocephali and Chimaeriformes --Biology of extant Chimaeriformes 6.4 Elasmobranchii, Euselachii, and Neoselachii --Selachii: Sharks --Batomorphi: Skates and rays 6.5 Biology of Neoselachii --Feeding --Bioluminescence and biofluorescence ---Hypoxia and the epaulette shark --Endothermal heterothermy --Swimming --Reproduction --Elasmobranch brains --Social networks and migration in sand tiger sharks 6.6 Declining Elasmobranch Populations --Conservation and sawfishes --Threats to chondrichthyans --Vulnerabilities of chondrichthyans --Ecological impacts of shark population declines --Policies to protect sharksChapter 7. Origin of Osteichthyes and Radiation of Actinopterygian 7.1 Osteichthyes, Actinopterygii, and Sarcopterygi --Osteichthyan character --Fin adaptations --Other differences between actinopterygians and sarcopterygians 7.2 Actinopterygii: Basal Group --Polypteriformes --Acipenseriformes --Neopterygii: Holostei --Neopterygii: Teleoste 7.3 Characters of Teleostei 7.4 Teleostei: Basal Groups --Elopomorpha --Osteoglossomorpha --Otocephala --Basal euteleosts 7.5 Teleostei: Acanthopterygii --Basal acanthopterygians --Percomorph 7.6 Swimming and Hydrodynamics --Generating forward thrust --Modes of locomotion --Speed and drag --Steering, stopping, and staying in place 7.7 Reproduction and Development --Oviparity --Viviparity --Sex change in teleosts 7.8 Ecology of Marine Teleosts --Black-water diving and larval teleosts --The photic zone and its subdivisions --Coral reef fishes --Pelagic and deep-sea fishesChapter 8. Sarcopterygians and the Origin of Tetrapods 8.1 Phylogenetic Concepts of Tetrapoda and Characters for Sarcopterygii 8.2 The Miguasha Lagerstätte and the “Good Fossil Effect” 8.3 Actinistia --†Onychodontia --Coelacanthiformes 8.4 Dipnomorpha --†Porolepiformes --Dipnoi ? 8.5 Tetrapodomorpha --Basal tetrapodomorphs --Tetrapods 8.6 Moving onto Land --How did fins become limbs? --Body support and locomotion of early tetrapods 8.7 Paleoecology of Devonian Tetrapodomorphs Chapter 9. Origins of Lissamphibia and Amniota 9.1 Paleozoic Tetrapods and the Origins of Extant Groups --Temnospondyli --Origins of Lissamphibia --Reptiliomorpha and the origin of amniotes --Paleozoic diversification of amniotes 9.2 Characters of Amniotes --Skeletal characters --The amniotic egg --Other soft-tissue characters of amniotes 9.3 Diversification of Amniotes --Temporal fenestration: Synapsids and diapsid --Ankle evolution in amnioteChapter 10. Geography and Ecology of the Mesozoic 10.1 Continental Geography and Climates --Continental movements --Climate shifts 10.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems --Flora --Fauna 10.3 Marine Ecosystems --Faunal composition: Apex predators --Other clades 10.4 Extinctions --Triassic and Jurassic extinctions --Cretaceous extinctionsChapter 11. Living on Land 11.1 Support on Land --Axial skeleton --Axial muscle --Appendicular skeleton --Size and scaling 11.2 Locomotion 11.3 Eating 11.4 Breathing Air 11.5 Pumping Blood Uphill 11.6 Sensory Systems --Vision --Hearing and equilibrium --Olfaction 11.7 Conserving Water in a Dry Environment --Cutaneous water loss --Respiratory water loss --Excretory water lossChapter 12. Lissamphibians 12.1 Diversity of Lissamphibians --Synapomorphies of Lissamphibia --Salamanders --Anurans --Caecilians 12.2 Life Histories of Lissamphibians --Mating and reproduction in salamanders --Anuran mating and reproduction --Anuran metamorphosis --The ecology of tadpoles --Caecilian reproduction and development 12.3 Respiration and Circulation --Cutaneous respiration and blood flow --Blood flow in larvae and adults 12.4 Water Relations --Uptake and storage of water --Cutaneous water loss --Behavioral control of cutaneous water loss 12.5 Crypsis, Warning Colors, Toxins, and Venoms --Skin glands and toxins --Toxicity and diet --Venomous lissamphibians 12.6 Why Are Lissamphibians Vanishing? --Chytrid fungi --Synergisms and domino effectsChapter 13. Synapsids and Sauropsids: Two Ways of Living on the Land 13.1 Conflicts between Locomotion and Respiration 13.2 Lungs and Lung Ventilation: Supplying Oxygen to the Blood --Synapsid lungs --Sauropsid lungs 13.3 Circulatory Systems: Supplying Oxygen to Tissues --Systemic arches of mammals and birds --Hearts with a ventricular septum: Mammals and birds --Hearts without a ventricular septum: Turtles and lepidosaurs --Shunting blood when the heart has a ventricular septum: Crocodylians 13.4 Getting Rid of Wastes: The Kidneys --Nitrogenous waste products --Nitrogen excretion by synapsids: The mammalian kidney --Nitrogen excretion by sauropsids: Renal and extrarenal routesChapter 14. Ectothermy and Endothermy: Two Ways of Regulating Body Temperature 14.1 Why Regulate Body Temperature? 14.2 Ectothermal Thermoregulation --Energy exchange and mechanisms of ectothermy --Thermal ecology of ectotherms 14.3 Endothermal Thermoregulation --Mechanisms of endothermal thermoregulation? 14.4 Pure Ectothermy and Pure Endothermy Lie at the Extremes of a Continuum --Endothermal ectotherms --Heterothermal endotherms: Torpor and hibernation --Heterothermal endotherms: Hyperthermia and life in the desert 14.5 Evolution of Endothermy --How did endothermy evolve? --Evaluating the models --Many factors 14.6 Thermoregulation, Energy Use, and Body Size --Energy requirements --Body size --Gigantothermy and the body temperatures of dinosaurs 14.7 Ectotherms, Endotherms, and Ecosystems Chapter 15. Lepidosaurs 15.1 Characters and Diversity of Lepidosaurs --Rhynchocephalians and the biology of tuatara --Squamata: Lizards --Squamata: Serpentes 15.2 Foraging Modes 15.3 Skull Kinesis and Feeding --Feeding specializations of snakes --Venom and fangs --Hearts and stomachs 15.4 Predator Avoidance and Defense --Crypsis, aposematism, and mimicry --Deterrence --Autotomy --Venom and poisons as defense mechanisms 15.5 Social Behavior --Courtship and territoriality --Sociality and parental care 15.6 Reproductive Modes --Oviparity and viviparity --Parthenogenesis --Sex determination 15.7 Climate Change Chapter 16. Turtles 16.1 Form and Function --Shell and skeleton --Head retraction --Lung ventilation --Evolution of the turtle body plan 16.2 Diversity 16.3 Social Behavior, Communication, and Courtship 16.4 Reproduction --Environmental sex determination --Parental care --Hatching and the behavior of baby turtles 16.5 Navigation and Migration --Navigation by adult sea turtles --Navigation by hatchling and juvenile sea turtles 16.6 Turtles in Trouble --Life history --Turtles are both delicious and considered medicinal --Turtles are in demand as pets --Sea turtles face extra risksChapter 17. Crocodylians 17.1 Diversity of Extant Crocodylians --Distribution of extant crocodylians --Locomotion 17.2 The Crocodylomorph Lineage --†Notosuchia --Neosuchia --Neosuchia 17.3 Predatory Behavior and Diet 17.4 Communication and Social Behavior 17.5 Reproduction and Parental Care --Environmental sex determination --Parental care 17.6 Threats to and from Crocodylians --Threats from crocodylians --Threats to crocodylians --Reconciling humans and crocodyliansChapter 18. Avemetatarsalia and the Origin of Dinosauria 18.1 Characters and Systematics of Avemetatarsalia 18.2 †Pterosaurs: Vertebrates Achieve Powered Flight --Structure of †pterosaurs --Reproduction, eggs, and parental care --Did the evolution of birds doom †pterosaurs 18.3 Dinosaurs: One of the Most Successful Tetrapod Radiations --The structure of dinosaurs 18.4 †Ornithischia --†Thyreophora --†Neornithischia --†Marginocephalia --†Ornithopoda --Social behavior of †ornithischian dinosaurs --Nesting and parental care by †ornithischians --†Neornithischia --†Marginocephalia --†Ornithopoda --Social behavior of †ornithischian dinosaurs --Nesting and parental care by †ornithischians 18.5 †Sauropodomorpha --Social behavior of †sauropod --Nesting and parental care by †sauropodomorphs?Chapter 19. Theropods and the Origin of Birds 19.1 Characters and Systematics of Theropods --Phylogenetic overview of Theropoda --†Coelophysoids: Early theropods --†Ceratosauria --Tetanurae --Community ecology of theropods --Social behavior of theropods 19.2 †Archaeopteryx, Mesozoic Avialans, and the Mosaic Evolution of Avian Characters --Discovery of †Archaeopteryx --Cretaceous avialans --Mosaic evolution of some avialan characters --Other avian features --Body size 19.3 Evolution of Powered Flight --How-and why-birds got off the ground --Gliding and flying by other Mesozoic paravians 19.4 Reproduction and Parental Care by Theropods --Eggs and nests --Parental care of hatchlingsChapter 20. Geography and Ecology of the Cenozoic 20.1 Continental Geography and Climates --Continental movements --Cenozoic climates 20.2 Cenozoic Ecosystems --Fossil Lake --Freshwater habitats --Marine habitats --Terrestrial flora --Terrestrial fauna 20.3 The Great American Biotic Interchange --Terrestrial vertebrates of North and South America --Faunal interchange --Marine fauna and isthmian pairs 20.4 Extinctions Chapter 21. Extant Birds 21.1 Diversity of Aves 21.2 Structural Specializations for Flight and Bipedalism --Body size --Feathers --Streamlining and weight reduction --Skeleton --Muscles 21.3 Wings and Flight --Flight mechanics --Wing shape and flight 21.4 Feet and Locomotion --Hopping, walking, and running --Swimming 21.5 Bills, Feeding, and Digestion --Bills, cranial kinesis, and tongues --Digestive tract 21.6 Sensory Systems --Vision --Hearing --Olfaction --Touch 21.7 Communication --Vocalization --Sonation --Visual displays 21.8 Reproduction --Reproductive organs and insemination --Egg structure --Maternal effects ---Sex determination -Hatching and developmental state of young 21.9 Parental Care --Nest building --Incubating --Feeding young --Interspecific brood parasitism 21.10 Orientation, Navigation, and Migration --Navigational abilities --Using multiple cues during navigation --Seasonal migration 21.11 Conservation Chapter 22. Synapsids and the Origin of Mammals 22.1 Synapsid Evolution --Cranial skeleton and teeth --Phylogenetic history of synapsids 22.2 Jaw Joints and Middle Ear Bones 22.3 Other Mammalian Features --Teeth --Specializations of the palate and tongue for swallowing --Facial muscles --Integument --Lactation, nursing, and suckling --Brain and senses --Internal anatomy 22.4 Basal Mammalian Clades --Prototheria --†Allotheria --TheriaChapter 23. Therians 23.1 Therian Features and Origins of Marsupialia and Placentalia --Therian skeletons 23.2 Diversity of Marsupials --Marsupials and the Australian fauna 23.3 Diversity of Placentals --Atlantogenata --Boreoeutheria 23.4 Reproduction --Genitalia --Urogenital tracts --Placentation --Gestation --Evolution of therian viviparity 23.5 Teeth and Feeding Specializations --Cusps and lophs --Carnivores and herbivores: Differences in jaw muscles --Digestive tracts 23.6 Locomotion --Limbs: Speed versus power --Cursorial adaptations of ungulate limbs --Digging --Powered flight of bats --Swimming --Cetacean evolution 23.7 Trophy Hunting and Extinction Risk --Bighorn sheep: A case study --Endangering the endangered: The effect of perceived rarity --The extinction vortexChapter 24. Primate Evolution and the Emergence of Humans 24.1 Primate Origins and Diversification --Basal primates --Euprimates --Anthropoids --New World monkeys --Old World monkeys and apes 24.2 Origin and Evolution of Hominoidea --Hylobatidae --Hominidae --Homininae 24.3 Origin and Evolution of Hominini --Distinctive features of hominins --Early hominins 24.4 The Genus Homo --†Homo habilis --†Homo erectus --†Dmanisi hominins --†Neanderthals --†Denisovan hominins --†Homo longi --Island species and miniaturization --†Homo naledi --†Homo bodoensis --Origin and radiation of Homo sapiens --What happened to the humans who were already there? 24.5 Evolution of Human Characters --Bipedalism --Large brains --Speech and language 24.6 Humans and Other Vertebrates --Humans as superpredators and environmental disruptors --Megafaunal extinctions --Is this the Anthropocene?AppendixA-1 GlossaryG-1 IndexI-1