Research Essentials

STEPHEN D. LAPAN, PHD, is professor in the College of Education at Northern Arizona University and directs its Curriculum and Instruction Doctoral Program. He has conducted research, including program evaluations, and has developed and taught courses in statistics, tests and measurements, program evaluation, action research, introduction to research, and paradigms for research. Currently, he teaches introductory and advanced research courses. MARYLYNN T. QUARTAROLI, EDD, is project director of the NEXUS Math/Science grant to Northern Arizona University project for Science Foundation Arizona. She teaches paradigms of research in education and advanced curriculum seminar classes for Northern Arizona University's Curriculum and Instruction Doctoral Program.

• Tables, Figures, and Exhibits xviiPreface xixIntroduction xxiiiThe Editors xxviiThe Authors xxix1 Research Ethics and the Use of Human Participants 1K. LarsonKey Ideas 1Ethical Standards 3The Genesis of Research Standards 3Federal Regulations for Ethical Research 4Institutional Review Boards 5Minimizing Risks to Participants 6Informed Consent 6Deception 9Debriefing 11Confidentiality and Anonymity 12Publishing Research 13Social Consequences of Unethical Research 14Reading and Evaluating Studies 15Summary 15Key Terms 15Further Readings and Resources 162 Understanding Literature Reviews 19G. McAllister and A. FurlongKey Ideas 19What Is a Literature Review? 20Basic Elements of a Literature Review 21Types of Literature Reviews 22Literature Reviews and Rigor 24How to Read a Literature Review 25Value of the Studies 27Readability 27Writing a Literature Review 29Muck About 29Set Your Parameters 29Conduct Your Research 30Analyze the Literature 30Focus on the Purpose of Your Literature Review 31Write Up the Literature Review 31Summary 32Key Terms 32Further Readings and Resources 333 Essential Elements of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research 35W. E. Martin Jr. and K. D. BridgmonKey Ideas 35Experimental Research Today 36Essential Elements of Experimental Research 37Processes of Designing and Conducting Experimental Research 38Formulating Experimental Conditions and Procedures 41Reducing Imprecision in Measurement 44Controlling Extraneous Experimental Influences 47Experimental Designs 50Randomized Posttest Only Control Group Design 51Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design 51Randomized Multiple Treatments and Control with Pretest Design 51Randomized Longitudinal Design 51External Validity 52Quasi-Experimental Research 54Nonequivalent Control Group Design 54Untreated Control Group Design with Dependent Pretest and Posttest Samples Using a Double Pretest 54Multiple Time-Series Design 55Summary 56Key Terms 56Further Readings and Resources 574 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research 59G. BelliKey Ideas 59Overview of Nonexperimental Research 60Variables and Their Measurement 61Defining Variables 62Phrasing Questions 64Classifying Nonexperimental Research 64Classification Based on Purpose (Dimension 1) 65Classification Based on Time (Dimension 2) 66Combining Classification Dimensions 68Causal Explanations and Nonexperimental Studies 71Requirements for Causality 72Ruling Out Alternative Hypotheses 73Analysis and Interpretation in Nonexperimental Studies 75Summary 76Key Terms 76Further Readings and Resources 775 A Primer of Survey Methods 79M. Berends and G. ZottolaKey Ideas 79What Is Survey Research? 80Surveys You Know 80The Research Process 81Choosing a Topic 82Focusing the Research: Concepts and Constructs 82Hypotheses, Variables, and Operationalization 82Independent Versus Dependent Variables 83Writing Good Survey Questions 84Piloting and Cognitive Interviews 87Sampling, Response Rates, and Nonresponse 88Probability or Random Sampling 89Simple, Stratified, and Systemic Samples 89Nonprobability Sampling 90Response Rates and Nonresponse 91Is the Framework Intact? 92Data Reduction 92Types of Surveys 93Face-to-Face Interviews 93Telephone Surveys 94Mail Surveys 95Internet and Web-Based Surveys 95Ethical Issues in Survey Research 96Ways to Ensure Confidentiality and Increase Anonymity 96Informed Consent 97Ethics Beyond Data Collection 98Summary 98Key Terms 99Further Readings and Resources 996 Quantitative Data Analysis 103M. T. QuartaroliKey Ideas 103What Do Those Numbers Mean? 104Meanings of Numbers 104Summarizing Data: Descriptive Statistics 105Frequency Distributions 105Distribution Patterns 107Types of Numerical Data 111Measures of Central Tendency 113Measures of Variability 117Measures of Relative Position 120Measures of Relationship 122Descriptive Statistics Are Important 124Generalizing Results: Inferential Statistics 124Tests of Significance 125Selection of the Statistical Tests 126Using Inferential Statistics for Decision Making 127Evaluating Reports with Quantitative Data 128Summary 129Key Terms 129Further Readings and Resources 1307 Understanding Meta-Analyses 131G. V GlassKey Ideas 131What Is Meta-Analysis? 132Meta-Analysis Illustrated 132Evaluating Meta-Analyses 138Another Example 140Summary 143Key Terms 143Further Readings and Resources 1448 Evaluating Historical Research 145L. M. HinesKey Ideas 145Basics of Historical Research 146How Are Questions Posed, or “So What?” 148Intriguing and Important Questions 148Filling a Gap 149Interpretive Differences 149Exploring Current Policy 150What Data Are Used, or “How Do You Know?” 151Primary Sources 152Secondary Sources 156What Is the Interpretation, or “Why Do You Think That?” 157Foci of Historical Studies 157Perspective on History 159Categories of Analysis 160Types of Historical Research 160Learning More 162Summary 163Key Terms 163Further Readings and Resources 1649 Case Study Research 165S. D. Lapan and S. W. J. ArmfieldKey Ideas 165Purposes of Program Case Studies 167Program Case Study Designs 168One-Shot or Snapshot Design 168Longitudinal Design 168Comparison Design 169Identifying the Case 169Planning and Conducting Case Studies 170Case Study Example: The Sentinel Middle School TILE Program 171Case Study Question 1: Influence on Instructional Planning 173Case Study Question 2: Student Thinking in Classroom Discussions 174Common Case Study Characteristics 177Learning from Case Studies 177Trusting Case Study Reports 178Summary 179Key Terms 179Further Readings and Resources 17910 Program Evaluation 181S. D. Lapan and C. M. HadenKey Ideas 181What Is Evaluation? 182The Logic of Evaluation 182Qualitative Versus Quantitative Data 183Forms of Evaluation 183Definition of a Program 184Purposes of Program Evaluation 185Program Evaluation History 186How Is Evaluation Done? 187Evaluation Agreement 188Criteria and Standard Selection 188Measuring Through Data Collection 190Synthesizing and Reporting Study Results 193Trusting Program Evaluation Findings 194Ethics in Evaluation Studies 195Judging Program Evaluation Studies 196Evaluator Qualifications 196Evaluation Planning 197Evaluation Design 197Evaluation Process 197Data Richness 198Study Validity 198Study Report 199Study Use 199Summary 200Key Terms 200Further Readings and Resources 20011 Ethnography Research 203F. J. RiemerKey Ideas 203Groping in the Dark 204What Is Ethnography Research? 204Ethnography Is Descriptive 206Ethnographic Methods 207Data Collection 209Risks of Ethnography Research 210Ethnographic Data Analysis 211Writing Up Field Notes 213Writing Up Ethnography Research 214Problems of Representation 215Reading Ethnography 217What Should a Reader Do? 217Practice Your Reading Skills 218Summary 218Key Terms 218Further Readings and Resources 21912 Feminism(S): Critique and Transformation 223R. Lalik and C. B. FeldermanKey Ideas 223Feminism in Academic and Popular Discourse 224Variability Among Feminisms 225Waves of Feminism 225African American Feminists Broaden the Conversation 226Feminism(s) and the Critique of Science 228Critique Related to Women’s Participation in Scientific Endeavors 229Critique Related to the Erasure of Knowledge About Successful Women Scientists 229Critique Related to the Patriarchal Nature of Science 230Critique Related to the Epistemology of Science 231Possibilities for a Feminist Epistemology 232Feminism(s) and Research Method and Methodology 235Resisting a Doctrine of Neutrality 235Interrupting Efforts to Simplify and Universalize Knowledge 236Studying How Women and Other Marginalized People Experience Life 237Researching with Intention to Transform Society 238Summary 239Key Terms 239Further Readings and Resources 24013 Using Multiple Methods Approaches 243P. A. Schutz, S. L. Nichols and K. A. RodgersKey Ideas 243What is Multimethod Research? 244Potential Benefits of Multimethod Research 245An Early Comment on the Benefits of Multiple Methods Research 245Adaptability of Multimethod Research 246Strength and Quality of Inferencing 248Summary of Benefits 251Multimethod Research Design 251Designs 252Sampling Schemes 254Multimethod Sampling 255Research Design Conclusion 256Summary 256Key Terms 257Further Readings and Resources 25714 Qualitative Data Analysis 259M. T. QuartaroliKey Ideas 259Words, Words, Words—Now What? 260Organizing the Data 261Describing the Data 264Coding the Data 264How Patterns Emerge 267Representing the Findings 269Writing Memos 269Creating Vignettes 269Developing Metaphors 269Creating Diagrams or Displays 270Building Theory 270Data Analysis Is Iterative 271Evaluating Reports with Qualitative Data 271Summary 273Key Terms 273Further Readings and Resources 27315 Applying Research Methods to Professional Practice 275D. Hopkins and E. AhtaridouKey Ideas 275What Is Action Research? 276Models of Action Research 278Kemmis Model 278Elliott Model 278Ebbutt Model 280Methods of Action Research 282Developing a Focus 283Practitioner Reflection in Action 283Data Collection Methods 284A Framework for Data Analysis 289Data Collection 289Validation 289Interpretation 290Action 290Summary 291Key Terms 292Further Readings and Resources 29216 Research, Policy, and Practice: The Great Disconnect 295D. C. BerlinerKey Ideas 295Origins of Faith and Apostasy in Research as a Guide to Practice 296Examples of the Problem 298Case 1 298Case 2 299Case 3 300Case 4 301Why the Disconnect? 302The Privacy Problem 302The Changed Roles Problem 303The Problem of Complexity in Classrooms and Other Social Settings 303The Problem of Science When It Delves into the Arts 304The Problem of Quality in Research 305The Problem of Relevance 306The Problem of Accessibility to Ideas by Practitioners 307The Problems of Stability and Instability in the Education System 307How Might Things Change? 309Summary 312Key Terms 313References 315Index 327