Advanced Structural Ceramics

Bikramjit Basu, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur. He is currently on leave at the Materials Research Center, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore, India. His research interests include processing-structure-property correlation in structural ceramics, including nanoceramics and nanocomposites as well as biomaterials and tribology of advanced materials. In recognition of his contributions to the field of ceramic and biomaterials science, he has received noteworthy awards from the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2004), the Indian National Science Academy (2005), the Metallurgist of the Year Award (2010) from the Indian government, and the NASI - SCOPUS Young Scientist Award (2010) from Elsevier and the National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI). He was the recipient of the Robert L. Coble Award for Young Scholars from the American Ceramic Society in 2008.Kantesh Balani, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur. His research focuses on the processing and characterization of carbon nanotube (CNT) based biomaterials, energy materials, and correlating mechanics at multiple length scales. He has received several recognitions as a Young Scientist, as well as a Young Engineer, for his contributions in the field of materials science.

“For professionals or students I would recommend this book as a valuable source of reference and information.”  (Materials World, 1 March 2013)"The book provides easy understanding by students as well as professionals interested in advanced ceramic composites." (Metall, 1 January 2012)

• Preface xviiForeword by Michel Barsoum xxiiiAbout the Authors xxvSection One Fundamentals of Nature and Characteristics of Ceramics1. Ceramics: Definition and Characteristics 31.1 Materials Classification 31.2 Historical Perspective; Definition and Classification of Ceramics 41.3 Properties of Structural Ceramics 81.4 Applications of Structural Ceramics 9References 122. Bonding, Structure, and Physical Properties 142.1 Primary Bonding 152.1.1 Ionic Bonding 152.1.2 Covalent Bonding 182.1.3 Pauling’s Rules 192.1.4 Secondary Bonding 212.2 Structure 212.2.1 NaCl-type Rock-Salt Structure 222.2.2 ZnS-Type Wurtzite Structure 222.2.3 ZnS-Type Zinc Blende Structure 232.2.4 CsCl Cesium Chloride Structure 232.2.5 CaF2 Fluorite Structure 232.2.6 Antifl uorite Structure 242.2.7 Rutile Structure 242.2.8 Al2O3 Corundum Structure 242.2.9 Spinel Structure 252.2.10 Perovskite Structure 262.2.11 Ilmenite Structure 262.2.12 Silicate Structures 262.3 Oxide Ceramics 282.4 Non-Oxide Ceramics 30References 333. Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics 343.1 Theory of Brittle Fracture 343.1.1 Theoretical Cohesive Strength 343.1.2 Inglis Theory 353.1.3 Griffi th’s Theory 373.1.4 Irwin’s Theory 393.1.5 Concept of Fracture Toughness 393.2 Cracking in Brittle Materials 403.3 Strength Variability of Ceramics 423.4 Physics of the Fracture of Brittle Solids 423.4.1 Weakest Link Fracture Statistics 443.5 Basic Mechanical Properties 483.5.1 Vickers Hardness 483.5.2 Instrumented Indentation Measurements 483.5.3 Compressive Strength 503.5.4 Flexural Strength 513.5.5 Elastic Modulus 523.5.6 Fracture Toughness 533.5.6.1 Long Crack Methods 543.5.6.2 Fracture Toughness Evaluation Using Indentation Cracking 553.6 Toughening Mechanisms 59References 63Section Two Processing of Ceramics4. Synthesis of High-Purity Ceramic Powders 674.1 Synthesis of ZrO2 Powders 674.2 Synthesis of TiB2 Powders 684.3 Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Powders 704.4 Synthesis of High-Purity Tungsten Carbide Powders 71References 755. Sintering of Ceramics 765.1 Introduction 765.2 Classification 785.3 Thermodynamic Driving Force 795.4 Solid-State Sintering 825.5 Competition between Densifi cation and Grain Growth 845.6 Liquid-Phase Sintering 885.7 Important Factors Infl uencing the Sintering Process 905.8 Powder Metallurgical Processes 925.8.1 Ball Milling 925.8.2 Compaction 945.8.2.1 Cold Pressing 945.8.2.2 Cold Isostatic Pressing 965.8.3 Pressureless Sintering 975.8.4 Reactive Sintering 985.8.5 Microwave Sintering 99References 1036. Thermomechanical Sintering Methods 1056.1 Hot Pressing 1056.2 Extrusion 1086.3 Hot Isostatic Pressing 1106.4 Hot Rolling 1126.5 Sinter Forging 1146.6 Spark Plasma Sintering 116References 118Section Three Surface Coatings7. Environment and Engineering of Ceramic Materials 1237.1 Environmental Infl uence on Properties of Engineering Ceramics 1247.1.1 Oxidation Resistance 1257.1.2 Corrosion Resistance 1267.1.3 Creep Resistance 1267.1.4 Hard Bearing Surfaces 1267.1.5 Thermal and Electrical Insulation 1267.1.6 Abrasion-Resistant Ceramics 1277.1.7 Fretting Wear Resistance, Surface Fatigue, Impact Resistance 1277.1.8 Erosion and Cavitation Resistance 1277.2 Classification and Engineering of Ceramic Materials 1287.2.1 Non-Oxide Ceramics 1287.2.2 Oxide Ceramics 132References 1358. Thermal Spraying of Ceramics 1378.1 Mechanism of Thermal Spraying 1378.1.1 Advantages of Thermal Spraying 1408.1.2 Disadvantages of Thermal Spraying 1418.2 Classification of Thermal Spraying 1418.2.1 Combustion Thermal Spraying 1428.2.1.1 Flame (Powder or Wire) Spraying 1428.2.1.2 High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel Spraying 1448.2.1.3 Detonation Spray Technique 1458.2.2 Electric Arc Spraying 1488.2.3 Cold Spraying 1498.2.4 Plasma Spraying 1508.2.4.1 Atmospheric Plasma Spraying 1528.2.4.2 Vacuum Plasma Spraying 1548.3 Splat Formation and Spread 1548.4 Near Net Shape Forming 1568.5 Overview 157References 1589. Coatings and Protection of Structural Ceramics 1609.1 Coatings 1609.2 Protective Coatings 1629.2.1 Biological Applications 1629.3 Rocket Nozzle Inserts 1639.4 Thermal Barrier Coatings 1659.5 Wear Resistance 1669.6 Corrosion Protection by Ceramics 1689.7 Optically Transparent Ceramics 1699.8 Ceramic Pottery and Sculptures 169References 170Section Four Processing and Properties of Toughened Ceramics10. Toughness Optimization in Zirconia-Based Ceramics 17510.1 Introduction 17510.2 Transformation Characteristics of Tetragonal Zirconia 17610.3 Phase Equilibria and Microstructure 17710.4 Transformation Toughening 17810.4.1 Thermodynamics of Transformation 17910.4.2 Micromechanical Modeling 18010.5 Stabilization of Tetragonal Zirconia 18210.6 Production and Properties of Y-TZP Ceramics 18310.7 Different Factors Influencing Transformation Toughening 18410.7.1 Grain Size 18710.7.2 Grain Shape and Grain Boundary Phase 18810.7.3 Yttria Content 19210.7.4 Yttria Distribution 19310.7.5 MS Temperature 19710.7.6 Transformation Zone Size and Shape 19710.7.7 Residual Stress 19910.8 Additional Toughening Mechanisms 19910.8.1 Stress-Induced Microcracking 20010.8.2 Ferroelastic Toughening 20110.9 Coupled Toughening Response 20310.10 Toughness Optimization in Y-TZP-Based Composites 20310.10.1 Influence of Thermal Residual Stresses 20610.10.2 Influence of Zirconia Matrix Stabilization 20710.11 Outlook 208References 20811. S-Phase SiAlON Ceramics: Microstructure and Properties 21511.1 Introduction 21511.2 Materials Processing and Property Measurements 21611.3 Microstructural Development 21711.4 Mechanical Properties 22011.4.1 Load-Dependent Hardness Properties 22611.4.2 R-Curve Behavior 22811.5 Concluding Remarks 230References 23212. Toughness and Tribological Properties of MAX Phases 23412.1 Emergence of MAX Phases 23412.2 Classification of MAX Phases 23512.3 Damage Tolerance of MAX Phases 23812.4 Wear of Ti3SiC2 MAX Phase 24412.5 Concluding Remarks 254References 254Section Five High-Temperature Ceramics13. Overview: High-Temperature Ceramics 25913.1 Introduction 25913.2 Phase Diagram and Crystal Structure 26013.3 Processing, Microstructure, and Properties of Bulk TiB2 26113.3.1 Preparation of TiB2 Powder 26113.3.2 Densification and Microstructure of Binderless TiB2 26513.4 Use of Metallic Sinter-Additives on Densification andProperties 26913.5 Influence of Nonmetallic Additives on Densification andProperties 27113.6 Important Applications of Bulk TiB2-Based Materials 28113.7 Concluding Remarks 281References 28314. Processing and Properties of TiB2 and ZrB2 with Sinter-Additives 28614.1 Introduction 28614.2 Materials Processing 28714.3 TiB2–MoSi2 System 28814.3.1 Densification, Microstructure, and Sintering Reactions 28814.3.2 Mechanical Properties 28814.3.3 Depth Sensing Instrumented Indentation Response 29014.3.4 Residual Strain-Induced Property Degradation 29314.3.5 Relationship between Indentation Work Done and Phase Assemblage 29514.4 TiB2–TiSi2 System 29614.4.1 Sintering Reactions and Densifi cation Mechanisms 29614.4.2 Mechanical Properties 29814.4.3 Residual Stress or Strain and Property Degradation 29814.5 ZrB2–SiC–TiSi2 Composites 30014.6 Concluding Remarks 301References 30215. High-Temperature Mechanical and Oxidation Properties 30515.1 Introduction 30515.2 High-Temperature Property Measurements 30915.3 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31015.3.1 High-Temperature Flexural Strength 31015.3.2 Hot Hardness Property 31115.4 Oxidation Behavior of TiB2–MoSi2 31215.5 Oxidation Behavior of TiB2–TiSi2 31515.5.1 Oxidation Kinetics 31515.5.2 Morphological Characteristics of Oxidized Surfaces 31715.6 Concluding Remarks 317References 318Section Six Nanoceramic Composites16. Overview: Relevance, Characteristics, and Applications of Nanostructured Ceramics 32316.1 Introduction 32316.2 Problems Associated with Synthesis of Nanosized Powders 32616.2.1 Methods of Synthesis of Nanoscaled Ceramic Powders 32616.2.2 Challenges Posed by the Typical Properties of Nanoscaled Powders 32716.3 Challenges Faced during Processing 32816.3.1 Problems Arising due to Fine Powders 32816.3.2 Challenges Faced due to Agglomerated Powders 32916.4 Processing of Bulk Nanocrystalline Ceramics 33016.4.1 Processes Used for Developing Bulk Nanocrystalline Ceramics 33016.4.2 Mechanisms Leading to Enhanced Sintering Kinetics on Pressure Application 33116.5 Mechanical Properties of Bulk Ceramic Nanomaterials 33216.5.1 Mechanical Properties 33216.5.1.1 Hardness and Yield Strength 33216.5.1.2 Fracture Strength and Fracture Toughness 33516.5.1.3 Superplasticity 33816.6 Applications of Nanoceramics 33916.7 Conclusion and Outlook 341References 34317. Oxide Nanoceramic Composites 34717.1 Overview 34717.2 Al2O3-Based Nanocomposites 34917.3 ZrO2-Based Nanocomposites 35517.4 Case Study 35617.4.1 Yttria-Stabilized Tetragonal Zirconia Polycrystal Nanoceramics 35617.4.2 ZrO2–ZrB2 Nanoceramic Composites 357References 36318. Microstructure Development and Properties of Non-Oxide Ceramic Nanocomposites 36618.1 Nanocomposites Based on Si3N4 36618.2 Other Advanced Nanocomposites 37118.2.1 Mullite–SiC 37118.2.2 Yttrium Aluminum Garnet–SiC 37118.2.3 SiC–TiC 37118.2.4 Hydroxyapatite–ZrO2 Nanobiocomposites 37118.2.5 Stress-Sensing Nanocomposites 37218.3 WC-Based Nanocomposites 37218.3.1 Background 37218.3.2 WC–ZrO2 Nanoceramic Composites 37518.3.3 WC–ZrO2–Co Nanocomposites 38018.3.4 Toughness of WC–ZrO2-Based Nanoceramic Composites 38418.3.5 Comparison with Other Ceramic Nanocomposites 385References 387Section Seven Bioceramics and Biocomposites19. Overview: Introduction to Biomaterials 39319.1 Introduction 39319.2 Hard Tissues 39419.3 Some Useful Definitions and Their Implications 39519.3.1 Biomaterial 39519.3.2 Biocompatibility 39719.3.3 Host Response 39719.4 Cell–Material Interaction 39819.5 Bacterial Infection and Biofilm Formation 40019.6 Different Factors Influencing Bacterial Adhesion 40219.6.1 Material Factors 40419.6.2 Bacteria-Related Factors 40519.6.3 External Factors 40619.7 Experimental Evaluation of Biocompatibility 40619.8 Overview of Properties of Some Biomaterials 41319.8.1 Coating on Metals 41319.8.2 Glass-Ceramics-Based Biomaterials 41719.9 Outlook 418References 41920. Calcium Phosphate-Based Bioceramic Composites 42220.1 Introduction 42220.2 Bioinert Ceramics 42420.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Biomaterials 42520.4 Calcium Phosphate–Mullite Composites 42820.4.1 Mechanical Properties 43020.4.2 Biocompatibility (In Vitro and In Vivo) 43120.5 Hydroxyapatite–Ti System 43420.6 Enhancement of Antimicrobial Properties of Hydroxyapatite 43420.6.1 Hydroxyapatite–Ag System 43720.6.2 Hydroxyapatite–ZnO System 439References 44321. Tribological Properties of Ceramic Biocomposites 44821.1 Introduction 44821.2 Tribology of Ceramic Biocomposites 44921.3 Tribological Properties of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite 45021.3.1 Materials and Experiments 45121.3.2 Effect of Lubrication on the Wear Resistance of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite 45121.3.3 Surface Topography of Mullite-Reinforced Hydroxyapatite after Fretting Wear 45421.4 Tribological Properties of Plasma-Sprayed Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 45421.4.1 Bulk Wear Resistance of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 45421.4.2 Nanomechanical Properties of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 45721.4.3 Nanoscratching of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced with Carbon Nanotubes 46121.5 Laser Surface Treatment of Calcium Phosphate Biocomposites 461References 470Index 472