Editor Alan J. Buglass Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Republic of Korea

• List of ContributorsxvGeneral Acknowledgments and ThanksxviiVolume 11 Introduction, Background and History 1John A. Hudson and Alan J. Buglass1.1 Alcoholic Beverages of the World: An Introduction to the Contents of This Book 31.2 History and Development of Alcoholic Beverages 121.2.1 The Beginnings (From the earliest Times to ca. 1100 AD) 121.2.2 Medieval Times and Beyond (ca. 1100–1750) 181.2.3 The Industrial Revolution and the Influences of Science and Technology (ca. 1750–1900) 241.2.4 Modern Times and Newer Processes (ca. 1900–Present Day) 281.2.5 The Development of Analytical Methods 35References 401.3 Some Recent Trends and Developments 421.3.1 Overview 421.3.2 Big is Beautiful: Multinational Companies and the Globalization of Alcoholic Beverages 421.3.3 Small is Beautiful: The Growth in Microbreweries and Craft Breweries and the Localization of Products 441.3.4 Revival of Traditional Beer Styles 451.3.5 Changes in Beer Drinking Habits 471.3.6 Global Growth in Wine Drinking 481.3.7 Development of New Wine Industries 501.3.8 Revival of Cider and Perry: the Magic of Ice 521.3.9 The Rise of Flavored Alcoholic Beverages (‘Alcopops’) 521.3.10 Calorie-Counting and Health Perception of Alcoholic Drinks 531.3.11 Binge Drinking 541.3.12 Organic and Biodynamic Production of Alcoholic Beverages 561.3.13 Use of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and Microorganisms 57References 592 Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks 63Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass and Chang Gook Lee2.1 Introduction: Overview of Fermentation and Microorganisms 652.1.1 Yeasts 672.1.2 Lactic Acid Bacteria 692.1.3 Molds and Spoilage Organisms 69References 702.2 Alcoholic Fermentation 722.2.1 Introduction 722.2.2 Physiology and Morphology of Yeast 722.2.3 Nutritional Requirements of Yeast 732.2.4 The Use of Naturally Occurring (‘Wild’) Yeasts in Fermentations 752.2.5 The Killer Factor 762.2.6 The Use of Selected (Cultured) Yeast Strains 762.2.7 Fermentation Vessels 772.2.8 The Growth of a Yeast Population 772.2.9 An Overview of Alcoholic Fermentation 802.2.10 Flocculation 872.2.11 Aroma Compounds and Fermentation 88References 932.3 Malolactic Fermentation 962.3.1 Introduction 962.3.2 Malolactic Bacteria: Morphology and Physiology 972.3.3 Identification of Malolactic Bacteria 982.3.4 Factors Affecting the Growth of Malolactic Bacteria 982.3.5 Interactions Between Bacteria and Other Organisms 1002.3.6 Spontaneous Malolactic Fermentation 1012.3.7 Inoculation with MLB Starter Culture 1012.3.8 The Growth of Bacterial Populations 1022.3.9 The Malolactic Fermentation Process 1032.3.10 Production of Diacetyl 1042.3.11 Microbial Stability 1042.3.12 Monitoring Malolactic Fermentation 1052.3.13 Finishing and/or Preventing Malolactic Fermentation 1052.3.14 Production of Biogenic Amines by Malolactic Bacteria 1062.3.15 Other Effects of MLF 1062.3.16 Malolactic Fermentation and Aroma 1072.3.17 Lactic Spoilage 111References 1122.4 Acetic and Other Fermentations 1142.4.1 Introduction 1142.4.2 Acetic Acid Bacteria 1152.4.3 Lactic Acid Bacteria 1172.4.4 The Activities of Yeasts other than Saccharomyces 1172.4.5 Film Forming Yeasts 1192.4.6 Molds 1202.4.7 Prevention of Spoilage 120References 1212.5 Preservatives Used in the Production of Alcoholic Beverages 1232.5.1 Introduction 1232.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 1232.5.3 The Roles of SO 2 1252.5.4 Sorbic Acid 1282.5.5 DMDC (Velcorin) 1292.5.6 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 1292.5.7 Pimaricin (Natamycin) 1302.5.8 Other Preservatives 130References 1312.6 Beer 1322.6.1 The Basic Brewing Processes 1322.6.2 Malting and Mashing 1342.6.3 Boiling the Wort 1482.6.4 Fermentation 1572.6.5 Top Fermentation 1632.6.6 Bottom Fermentation 1672.6.7 Other Fermentations 1692.6.8 Modern Methods of Fermentation 1712.6.9 Beer Treatment: Fining, Filtration and Pasteurization 1732.6.10 Packaging of Beer: Casking, Kegging, Bottling and Canning 1822.6.11 Dispensing of Draught Beers 1862.6.12 Oxidation and the Staling of Beer 1922.6.13 Beer styles 196References 2072.7 Cereal-based and Other Fermented Drinks of Asia, Africa and Central/South America 2112.7.1 The Rice ‘Wines’ of Asia 2122.7.2 Native Fermented Drinks of Africa and South America 222References 2292.8 Cider and Perry 2312.8.1 Introduction 2312.8.2 The Basic Ingredients 2332.8.3 Harvesting, Crushing and Pressing 2382.8.4 Fermentation and Maturation 2412.8.5 Traditional and Small-Scale Cider and Perry Production: Fermentation and Beyond 2452.8.6 Large-Scale (Factory) Production of Cider and Perry: Fermentation and Beyond 2512.8.7 Newer Techniques, Recent Developments and Innovations 2542.8.8 Cider and Perry from Around the World 257References 2632.9 Wine 2662.9.1 White Winemaking 2672.9.2 Red Wine Production 3002.9.3 Sparkling Wines 3242.9.4 Fining, Filtration and Clarification 3432.9.5 Wine Maturation and Ageing 3542.9.6 Some Current Trends in Wine Production 371References 3772.10 Fortified Wines and Liqueur Wines 3832.10.1 Overview and Scope 3832.10.2 Sherry and Other Flor Wines 3842.10.3 Flor and Oxidation in Sherry Wines 3912.10.4 Other Flor Wines 3942.10.5 Madeira 3952.10.6 Estufagem and Cask Maturation of Madeira Wine 3972.10.7 Port 3992.10.8 Marsala and Málaga 4082.10.9 Vins Doux Naturels, Liqueur Muscat and Similar Wines 4092.10.10 Vins de Liqueurs and Similar Beverages 414References 4162.11 Fruit Wines and Other Nongrape Wines 4192.11.1 Overview and Scope 4192.11.2 Comparison of Fruit for Winemaking 4202.11.3 Making Fruit Wines 4232.11.4 Country Wine Styles 4292.11.5 Mead 432References 4342.12 Aromatized Wines 4362.12.1 Introduction and Brief History of Aromatization of Wine 4362.12.2 Vermouth 4372.12.3 Other Aromatized Wines and Apéritifs 444References 4452.13 Low Alcohol and Non-Alcoholic Beers, Ciders and Wines 4472.13.1 Overview 4472.13.2 Production of Low Alcohol Beverages by Limited or Checked Alcohol Methods 4482.13.3 Dealcoholization Methods 450References 4533 Distilled Spirits 455Alan J. Buglass, Marianne McKay and Chang Gook Lee3.1 Introduction: Distillation Methods and Stills 4573.1.1 A Brief History and Theory of Distillation 4573.1.2 Batch Distillation 4613.1.3 Continuous Column Distillation 466References 4683.2 Scotch Whisky 4693.2.1 Introduction and Brief History 4693.2.2 The Raw Materials 4753.2.3 Malting, Mashing, Cooking and Fermentation 4793.2.4 Distillation 4873.2.5 Maturation, Blending and Other Postdistillation Processes 4913.2.6 The Flavor and Styles of Scotch Malt Whiskies 498References 5123.3 Whiskeys 5153.3.1 Scope 5153.3.2 Irish Whiskey 5163.3.3 The Whiskeys of America 5193.3.4 Bourbon and Tennessee Whiskey 5203.3.5 American Rye and Corn Whiskies 5273.3.6 Whiskies from Other Countries 528References 5333.4 Other Cereal Based Spirits 5353.4.1 Introduction and Scope 5353.4.2 Gin and Similar Juniper Flavored Spirits 5353.4.3 Akvavit (Aquavit) and Vodka 5413.4.4 Asian Grain Spirits 543References 5533.5 Cane Spirits, Vegetable Based Spirits and Aniseed Flavored Spirits 5553.5.1 Overview and Scope 5553.5.2 History and Basic Description of Rum and Cachaça 5563.5.3 Fermentation and Distillation Practices in the Production of Cachaça and Rum 5603.5.4 Flavor Characteristics of Rum and Cachaça 5643.5.5 Arrack, Mezcal and Tequila 5663.5.6 Aniseed Flavored Spirits 570References 5723.6 Brandy 5743.6.1 Introduction and Brief History 5743.6.2 Cognac 5853.6.3 Armagnac 5883.6.4 Other Brandies 5893.6.5 Quality Control in Brandy Production 5913.6.6 Evaluating Brandy 591References 5933.7 Grape and Other Pomace Spirits 5953.7.1 Introduction 5953.7.2 Production of Pomace Spirits 5963.7.3 Types of Pomace Spirits and Sensory Characteristics 598References 6003.8 Fruit Spirits 6023.8.1 Introduction 6023.8.2 Apple and Pear Spirits 6033.8.3 Fruit Spirits of Central Europe 6083.8.4 Plum Spirits of Eastern Europe 6113.8.5 Other Fruit Spirits 612References 6133.9 Liqueurs and Their Flavorings 6153.9.1 Introduction and Scope 6153.9.2 Fruit and Fruit Flavored Liqueurs 6173.9.3 Flower, Herb, Spice and Bitter Liqueurs 6203.9.4 Cocoa, Coffee and Tea Liqueurs 6243.9.5 Nut and Emulsion Liqueurs 6243.9.6 Production and Use of Essences and Concentrates 625References 626Volume 24 Analytical Methods 629Alan J. Buglass and Darren J. Caven-Quantrill4.1 Introduction 6314.1.1 Why Analyze Alcoholic Beverages? An Overview of the Need for Analysis 6324.1.2 Process Monitoring 6334.1.3 Identification of Origin, Determination of Authenticity and Detection of Fraud 6364.1.4 Determination and Characterization of Beverage Components and Processes 6394.1.5 Development of New Analytical Methods 642References 6454.2 Extraction and Focusing Methods in Sample Preparation 6474.2.1 Overview 6474.2.2 Liquid Extraction Techniques 6484.2.3 Distillation Methods 6594.2.4 Solid Phase Extraction and Related Methods (Sorption Techniques) 6644.2.5 Headspace Methods 6844.2.6 Combinations of Methods (With Particular Application to Enological Products) 6884.2.7 Summary 690References 6904.3 Chromatographic Methods 7054.3.1 Thin Layer Chromatography and Related Methods 7064.3.2 Capillary Gas Chromatography 7094.3.3 Liquid Chromatography 7224.3.4 Counter Current Chromatographic Methods 752References 7554.4 Spectroscopic Methods 7654.4.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 7674.4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 7844.4.3 Colorimetry, UV-Visible Spectroscopy and Fluorometry 7934.4.4 Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy 8144.4.5 Mass Spectrometry 825References 8434.5 Electrochemical Methods 8554.5.1 Potentiometric Methods 8564.5.2 Voltammetric Methods 8634.5.3 Electrochemical Sensors 869References 8734.6 Other Methods 8774.6.1 Electrophoretic Techniques 8774.6.2 Flow Injection Techniques 8894.6.3 Chemical and Physical Methods 896References 9074.7 Sensory Analysis 9134.7.1 Introduction 9134.7.2 Olfaction and Taste 9144.7.3 Odor Theshold, Odor Activity and Low Impact Odorants 9224.7.4 Sensory Tests 925References 9305 Nutritional and Health Aspects 933Nigel J. Fuller, Suk Hean Lee and Alan J. Buglass5.1 General Introduction 9355.1.1 ‘Alcohol’ in Perspective 9365.1.2 The Extent and General Implications of Alcoholic Beverage Consumption 9385.1.3 Ingredients, Processing and the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9415.1.4 Nutritional Considerations 9435.1.5 Summary 946References 9465.2 Factors Influencing the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9495.2.1 Wines 9515.2.2 Beers 9525.2.3 Cider and Perry 9555.2.4 Distilled Beverages 9555.2.5 Fortified wines 9575.2.6 Alcopops 9585.2.7 Cocktails 958References 9595.3 Macronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9615.3.1 Water 9635.3.2 Alcohol 9665.3.3 Carbohydrates (Including Fiber) 9675.3.4 Nitrogenous Compounds: Proteins, Peptides, Amino Acids, Amines and Nucleotides 9705.3.5 Lipids 972References 9735.4 Micronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9755.4.1 Vitamins 9775.4.2 Electrolytes and Functional Elements (Minerals and Trace Elements) 9815.4.3 Phytochemicals 986References 9905.5 Alcohol Ingestion, Absorption and Catabolism: Metabolic and Nutritional Consequences 9935.5.1 Alcohol Catabolism 9945.5.2 Methanol Catabolism 9975.5.3 Effects of Alcohol on Intake of Foods and Energy 9975.5.4 Consequences for Intermediary Metabolism of Alcohol Catabolism 9985.5.5 Effects of Alcohol and its Metabolites on Absorption, Metabolism and Utilization of Key Nutrients 1000References 10015.6 Health Consequences of Alcohol Intake 10035.6.1 Overview: Alcoholic Beverages and Society 10035.6.2 Harmful Effects of Excessive Alcohol Intake 10085.6.3 Possible Benefits of Low to Moderate Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages 10205.6.4 Conclusion 1022References 10225.7 Carbohydrates in Alcoholic Beverages and Health 10305.7.1 Metabolizable Carbohydrate 10305.7.2 Low Carbohydrate Beers 10335.7.3 High Carbohydrate Beers 10345.7.4 Nonmetabolizable Carbohydrate 1035References 10375.8 Antioxidant Value of Alcoholic Beverages 10385.8.1 Overview 10385.8.2 Summary of Aerobic Cell Metabolic Processes 10395.8.3 Short Review of Oxygen in Cell Metabolic Processes 10395.8.4 Incomplete Reduction of Oxygen, the Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cell Damage 10415.8.5 Natural Antioxidants in Food 10435.8.6 Phenolic Substances in Alcoholic Beverages 10445.8.7 Some Chemical Characteristics of Phenolic Compounds 10455.8.8 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Potency of Alcoholic Beverages, their Phenolic Extracts and their Individual Phenolic Components 10505.8.9 Mechanisms of In Vivo Health Benefits of Dietary Phenols: Antioxidants or Otherwise? 1054References 10615.9 Additives in Alcoholic Beverages 10655.9.1 Introduction 10655.9.2 Sulfur Dioxide and Other Preservatives 10655.9.3 Fining Agents and Adjuncts 10685.9.4 Other Additives 10695.9.5 Regulations and Legislation Relating to Additives 1071References 10735.10 Residues in Alcoholic Beverages 10765.10.1 Introduction 10765.10.2 Pesticides 10765.10.3 Metal and Nonmetal Residues 10825.10.4 Industrial Contaminants 1086References 10915.11 Other Trace Substances in Alcoholic Beverages 10935.11.1 Introduction 10935.11.2 Phytochemicals 10935.11.3 Nitrogenous Allergenic Substances 10985.11.4 Mycotoxins 11015.11.5 Other Trace Substances 1104References 1107Appendix 1 Units of Measurement and Interconversions 1111Appendix 2 1113Appendix 3 Pressure and Temperature Unit Conversions, and Numerical Values of Constants 1115Glossary 1117Index 1141

Editor Alan J. Buglass Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Republic of Korea

• List of ContributorsxvGeneral Acknowledgments and ThanksxviiVolume 11 Introduction, Background and History 1John A. Hudson and Alan J. Buglass1.1 Alcoholic Beverages of the World: An Introduction to the Contents of This Book 31.2 History and Development of Alcoholic Beverages 121.2.1 The Beginnings (From the earliest Times to ca. 1100 AD) 121.2.2 Medieval Times and Beyond (ca. 1100–1750) 181.2.3 The Industrial Revolution and the Influences of Science and Technology (ca. 1750–1900) 241.2.4 Modern Times and Newer Processes (ca. 1900–Present Day) 281.2.5 The Development of Analytical Methods 35References 401.3 Some Recent Trends and Developments 421.3.1 Overview 421.3.2 Big is Beautiful: Multinational Companies and the Globalization of Alcoholic Beverages 421.3.3 Small is Beautiful: The Growth in Microbreweries and Craft Breweries and the Localization of Products 441.3.4 Revival of Traditional Beer Styles 451.3.5 Changes in Beer Drinking Habits 471.3.6 Global Growth in Wine Drinking 481.3.7 Development of New Wine Industries 501.3.8 Revival of Cider and Perry: the Magic of Ice 521.3.9 The Rise of Flavored Alcoholic Beverages (‘Alcopops’) 521.3.10 Calorie-Counting and Health Perception of Alcoholic Drinks 531.3.11 Binge Drinking 541.3.12 Organic and Biodynamic Production of Alcoholic Beverages 561.3.13 Use of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and Microorganisms 57References 592 Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks 63Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass and Chang Gook Lee2.1 Introduction: Overview of Fermentation and Microorganisms 652.1.1 Yeasts 672.1.2 Lactic Acid Bacteria 692.1.3 Molds and Spoilage Organisms 69References 702.2 Alcoholic Fermentation 722.2.1 Introduction 722.2.2 Physiology and Morphology of Yeast 722.2.3 Nutritional Requirements of Yeast 732.2.4 The Use of Naturally Occurring (‘Wild’) Yeasts in Fermentations 752.2.5 The Killer Factor 762.2.6 The Use of Selected (Cultured) Yeast Strains 762.2.7 Fermentation Vessels 772.2.8 The Growth of a Yeast Population 772.2.9 An Overview of Alcoholic Fermentation 802.2.10 Flocculation 872.2.11 Aroma Compounds and Fermentation 88References 932.3 Malolactic Fermentation 962.3.1 Introduction 962.3.2 Malolactic Bacteria: Morphology and Physiology 972.3.3 Identification of Malolactic Bacteria 982.3.4 Factors Affecting the Growth of Malolactic Bacteria 982.3.5 Interactions Between Bacteria and Other Organisms 1002.3.6 Spontaneous Malolactic Fermentation 1012.3.7 Inoculation with MLB Starter Culture 1012.3.8 The Growth of Bacterial Populations 1022.3.9 The Malolactic Fermentation Process 1032.3.10 Production of Diacetyl 1042.3.11 Microbial Stability 1042.3.12 Monitoring Malolactic Fermentation 1052.3.13 Finishing and/or Preventing Malolactic Fermentation 1052.3.14 Production of Biogenic Amines by Malolactic Bacteria 1062.3.15 Other Effects of MLF 1062.3.16 Malolactic Fermentation and Aroma 1072.3.17 Lactic Spoilage 111References 1122.4 Acetic and Other Fermentations 1142.4.1 Introduction 1142.4.2 Acetic Acid Bacteria 1152.4.3 Lactic Acid Bacteria 1172.4.4 The Activities of Yeasts other than Saccharomyces 1172.4.5 Film Forming Yeasts 1192.4.6 Molds 1202.4.7 Prevention of Spoilage 120References 1212.5 Preservatives Used in the Production of Alcoholic Beverages 1232.5.1 Introduction 1232.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 1232.5.3 The Roles of SO 2 1252.5.4 Sorbic Acid 1282.5.5 DMDC (Velcorin) 1292.5.6 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 1292.5.7 Pimaricin (Natamycin) 1302.5.8 Other Preservatives 130References 1312.6 Beer 1322.6.1 The Basic Brewing Processes 1322.6.2 Malting and Mashing 1342.6.3 Boiling the Wort 1482.6.4 Fermentation 1572.6.5 Top Fermentation 1632.6.6 Bottom Fermentation 1672.6.7 Other Fermentations 1692.6.8 Modern Methods of Fermentation 1712.6.9 Beer Treatment: Fining, Filtration and Pasteurization 1732.6.10 Packaging of Beer: Casking, Kegging, Bottling and Canning 1822.6.11 Dispensing of Draught Beers 1862.6.12 Oxidation and the Staling of Beer 1922.6.13 Beer styles 196References 2072.7 Cereal-based and Other Fermented Drinks of Asia, Africa and Central/South America 2112.7.1 The Rice ‘Wines’ of Asia 2122.7.2 Native Fermented Drinks of Africa and South America 222References 2292.8 Cider and Perry 2312.8.1 Introduction 2312.8.2 The Basic Ingredients 2332.8.3 Harvesting, Crushing and Pressing 2382.8.4 Fermentation and Maturation 2412.8.5 Traditional and Small-Scale Cider and Perry Production: Fermentation and Beyond 2452.8.6 Large-Scale (Factory) Production of Cider and Perry: Fermentation and Beyond 2512.8.7 Newer Techniques, Recent Developments and Innovations 2542.8.8 Cider and Perry from Around the World 257References 2632.9 Wine 2662.9.1 White Winemaking 2672.9.2 Red Wine Production 3002.9.3 Sparkling Wines 3242.9.4 Fining, Filtration and Clarification 3432.9.5 Wine Maturation and Ageing 3542.9.6 Some Current Trends in Wine Production 371References 3772.10 Fortified Wines and Liqueur Wines 3832.10.1 Overview and Scope 3832.10.2 Sherry and Other Flor Wines 3842.10.3 Flor and Oxidation in Sherry Wines 3912.10.4 Other Flor Wines 3942.10.5 Madeira 3952.10.6 Estufagem and Cask Maturation of Madeira Wine 3972.10.7 Port 3992.10.8 Marsala and Málaga 4082.10.9 Vins Doux Naturels, Liqueur Muscat and Similar Wines 4092.10.10 Vins de Liqueurs and Similar Beverages 414References 4162.11 Fruit Wines and Other Nongrape Wines 4192.11.1 Overview and Scope 4192.11.2 Comparison of Fruit for Winemaking 4202.11.3 Making Fruit Wines 4232.11.4 Country Wine Styles 4292.11.5 Mead 432References 4342.12 Aromatized Wines 4362.12.1 Introduction and Brief History of Aromatization of Wine 4362.12.2 Vermouth 4372.12.3 Other Aromatized Wines and Apéritifs 444References 4452.13 Low Alcohol and Non-Alcoholic Beers, Ciders and Wines 4472.13.1 Overview 4472.13.2 Production of Low Alcohol Beverages by Limited or Checked Alcohol Methods 4482.13.3 Dealcoholization Methods 450References 4533 Distilled Spirits 455Alan J. Buglass, Marianne McKay and Chang Gook Lee3.1 Introduction: Distillation Methods and Stills 4573.1.1 A Brief History and Theory of Distillation 4573.1.2 Batch Distillation 4613.1.3 Continuous Column Distillation 466References 4683.2 Scotch Whisky 4693.2.1 Introduction and Brief History 4693.2.2 The Raw Materials 4753.2.3 Malting, Mashing, Cooking and Fermentation 4793.2.4 Distillation 4873.2.5 Maturation, Blending and Other Postdistillation Processes 4913.2.6 The Flavor and Styles of Scotch Malt Whiskies 498References 5123.3 Whiskeys 5153.3.1 Scope 5153.3.2 Irish Whiskey 5163.3.3 The Whiskeys of America 5193.3.4 Bourbon and Tennessee Whiskey 5203.3.5 American Rye and Corn Whiskies 5273.3.6 Whiskies from Other Countries 528References 5333.4 Other Cereal Based Spirits 5353.4.1 Introduction and Scope 5353.4.2 Gin and Similar Juniper Flavored Spirits 5353.4.3 Akvavit (Aquavit) and Vodka 5413.4.4 Asian Grain Spirits 543References 5533.5 Cane Spirits, Vegetable Based Spirits and Aniseed Flavored Spirits 5553.5.1 Overview and Scope 5553.5.2 History and Basic Description of Rum and Cachaça 5563.5.3 Fermentation and Distillation Practices in the Production of Cachaça and Rum 5603.5.4 Flavor Characteristics of Rum and Cachaça 5643.5.5 Arrack, Mezcal and Tequila 5663.5.6 Aniseed Flavored Spirits 570References 5723.6 Brandy 5743.6.1 Introduction and Brief History 5743.6.2 Cognac 5853.6.3 Armagnac 5883.6.4 Other Brandies 5893.6.5 Quality Control in Brandy Production 5913.6.6 Evaluating Brandy 591References 5933.7 Grape and Other Pomace Spirits 5953.7.1 Introduction 5953.7.2 Production of Pomace Spirits 5963.7.3 Types of Pomace Spirits and Sensory Characteristics 598References 6003.8 Fruit Spirits 6023.8.1 Introduction 6023.8.2 Apple and Pear Spirits 6033.8.3 Fruit Spirits of Central Europe 6083.8.4 Plum Spirits of Eastern Europe 6113.8.5 Other Fruit Spirits 612References 6133.9 Liqueurs and Their Flavorings 6153.9.1 Introduction and Scope 6153.9.2 Fruit and Fruit Flavored Liqueurs 6173.9.3 Flower, Herb, Spice and Bitter Liqueurs 6203.9.4 Cocoa, Coffee and Tea Liqueurs 6243.9.5 Nut and Emulsion Liqueurs 6243.9.6 Production and Use of Essences and Concentrates 625References 626Volume 24 Analytical Methods 629Alan J. Buglass and Darren J. Caven-Quantrill4.1 Introduction 6314.1.1 Why Analyze Alcoholic Beverages? An Overview of the Need for Analysis 6324.1.2 Process Monitoring 6334.1.3 Identification of Origin, Determination of Authenticity and Detection of Fraud 6364.1.4 Determination and Characterization of Beverage Components and Processes 6394.1.5 Development of New Analytical Methods 642References 6454.2 Extraction and Focusing Methods in Sample Preparation 6474.2.1 Overview 6474.2.2 Liquid Extraction Techniques 6484.2.3 Distillation Methods 6594.2.4 Solid Phase Extraction and Related Methods (Sorption Techniques) 6644.2.5 Headspace Methods 6844.2.6 Combinations of Methods (With Particular Application to Enological Products) 6884.2.7 Summary 690References 6904.3 Chromatographic Methods 7054.3.1 Thin Layer Chromatography and Related Methods 7064.3.2 Capillary Gas Chromatography 7094.3.3 Liquid Chromatography 7224.3.4 Counter Current Chromatographic Methods 752References 7554.4 Spectroscopic Methods 7654.4.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 7674.4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 7844.4.3 Colorimetry, UV-Visible Spectroscopy and Fluorometry 7934.4.4 Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy 8144.4.5 Mass Spectrometry 825References 8434.5 Electrochemical Methods 8554.5.1 Potentiometric Methods 8564.5.2 Voltammetric Methods 8634.5.3 Electrochemical Sensors 869References 8734.6 Other Methods 8774.6.1 Electrophoretic Techniques 8774.6.2 Flow Injection Techniques 8894.6.3 Chemical and Physical Methods 896References 9074.7 Sensory Analysis 9134.7.1 Introduction 9134.7.2 Olfaction and Taste 9144.7.3 Odor Theshold, Odor Activity and Low Impact Odorants 9224.7.4 Sensory Tests 925References 9305 Nutritional and Health Aspects 933Nigel J. Fuller, Suk Hean Lee and Alan J. Buglass5.1 General Introduction 9355.1.1 ‘Alcohol’ in Perspective 9365.1.2 The Extent and General Implications of Alcoholic Beverage Consumption 9385.1.3 Ingredients, Processing and the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9415.1.4 Nutritional Considerations 9435.1.5 Summary 946References 9465.2 Factors Influencing the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9495.2.1 Wines 9515.2.2 Beers 9525.2.3 Cider and Perry 9555.2.4 Distilled Beverages 9555.2.5 Fortified wines 9575.2.6 Alcopops 9585.2.7 Cocktails 958References 9595.3 Macronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9615.3.1 Water 9635.3.2 Alcohol 9665.3.3 Carbohydrates (Including Fiber) 9675.3.4 Nitrogenous Compounds: Proteins, Peptides, Amino Acids, Amines and Nucleotides 9705.3.5 Lipids 972References 9735.4 Micronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9755.4.1 Vitamins 9775.4.2 Electrolytes and Functional Elements (Minerals and Trace Elements) 9815.4.3 Phytochemicals 986References 9905.5 Alcohol Ingestion, Absorption and Catabolism: Metabolic and Nutritional Consequences 9935.5.1 Alcohol Catabolism 9945.5.2 Methanol Catabolism 9975.5.3 Effects of Alcohol on Intake of Foods and Energy 9975.5.4 Consequences for Intermediary Metabolism of Alcohol Catabolism 9985.5.5 Effects of Alcohol and its Metabolites on Absorption, Metabolism and Utilization of Key Nutrients 1000References 10015.6 Health Consequences of Alcohol Intake 10035.6.1 Overview: Alcoholic Beverages and Society 10035.6.2 Harmful Effects of Excessive Alcohol Intake 10085.6.3 Possible Benefits of Low to Moderate Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages 10205.6.4 Conclusion 1022References 10225.7 Carbohydrates in Alcoholic Beverages and Health 10305.7.1 Metabolizable Carbohydrate 10305.7.2 Low Carbohydrate Beers 10335.7.3 High Carbohydrate Beers 10345.7.4 Nonmetabolizable Carbohydrate 1035References 10375.8 Antioxidant Value of Alcoholic Beverages 10385.8.1 Overview 10385.8.2 Summary of Aerobic Cell Metabolic Processes 10395.8.3 Short Review of Oxygen in Cell Metabolic Processes 10395.8.4 Incomplete Reduction of Oxygen, the Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cell Damage 10415.8.5 Natural Antioxidants in Food 10435.8.6 Phenolic Substances in Alcoholic Beverages 10445.8.7 Some Chemical Characteristics of Phenolic Compounds 10455.8.8 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Potency of Alcoholic Beverages, their Phenolic Extracts and their Individual Phenolic Components 10505.8.9 Mechanisms of In Vivo Health Benefits of Dietary Phenols: Antioxidants or Otherwise? 1054References 10615.9 Additives in Alcoholic Beverages 10655.9.1 Introduction 10655.9.2 Sulfur Dioxide and Other Preservatives 10655.9.3 Fining Agents and Adjuncts 10685.9.4 Other Additives 10695.9.5 Regulations and Legislation Relating to Additives 1071References 10735.10 Residues in Alcoholic Beverages 10765.10.1 Introduction 10765.10.2 Pesticides 10765.10.3 Metal and Nonmetal Residues 10825.10.4 Industrial Contaminants 1086References 10915.11 Other Trace Substances in Alcoholic Beverages 10935.11.1 Introduction 10935.11.2 Phytochemicals 10935.11.3 Nitrogenous Allergenic Substances 10985.11.4 Mycotoxins 11015.11.5 Other Trace Substances 1104References 1107Appendix 1 Units of Measurement and Interconversions 1111Appendix 2 1113Appendix 3 Pressure and Temperature Unit Conversions, and Numerical Values of Constants 1115Glossary 1117Index 1141

Editor Alan J. Buglass Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Republic of Korea

• List of ContributorsxvGeneral Acknowledgments and ThanksxviiVolume 11 Introduction, Background and History 1John A. Hudson and Alan J. Buglass1.1 Alcoholic Beverages of the World: An Introduction to the Contents of This Book 31.2 History and Development of Alcoholic Beverages 121.2.1 The Beginnings (From the earliest Times to ca. 1100 AD) 121.2.2 Medieval Times and Beyond (ca. 1100–1750) 181.2.3 The Industrial Revolution and the Influences of Science and Technology (ca. 1750–1900) 241.2.4 Modern Times and Newer Processes (ca. 1900–Present Day) 281.2.5 The Development of Analytical Methods 35References 401.3 Some Recent Trends and Developments 421.3.1 Overview 421.3.2 Big is Beautiful: Multinational Companies and the Globalization of Alcoholic Beverages 421.3.3 Small is Beautiful: The Growth in Microbreweries and Craft Breweries and the Localization of Products 441.3.4 Revival of Traditional Beer Styles 451.3.5 Changes in Beer Drinking Habits 471.3.6 Global Growth in Wine Drinking 481.3.7 Development of New Wine Industries 501.3.8 Revival of Cider and Perry: the Magic of Ice 521.3.9 The Rise of Flavored Alcoholic Beverages (‘Alcopops’) 521.3.10 Calorie-Counting and Health Perception of Alcoholic Drinks 531.3.11 Binge Drinking 541.3.12 Organic and Biodynamic Production of Alcoholic Beverages 561.3.13 Use of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and Microorganisms 57References 592 Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks 63Marianne McKay, Alan J. Buglass and Chang Gook Lee2.1 Introduction: Overview of Fermentation and Microorganisms 652.1.1 Yeasts 672.1.2 Lactic Acid Bacteria 692.1.3 Molds and Spoilage Organisms 69References 702.2 Alcoholic Fermentation 722.2.1 Introduction 722.2.2 Physiology and Morphology of Yeast 722.2.3 Nutritional Requirements of Yeast 732.2.4 The Use of Naturally Occurring (‘Wild’) Yeasts in Fermentations 752.2.5 The Killer Factor 762.2.6 The Use of Selected (Cultured) Yeast Strains 762.2.7 Fermentation Vessels 772.2.8 The Growth of a Yeast Population 772.2.9 An Overview of Alcoholic Fermentation 802.2.10 Flocculation 872.2.11 Aroma Compounds and Fermentation 88References 932.3 Malolactic Fermentation 962.3.1 Introduction 962.3.2 Malolactic Bacteria: Morphology and Physiology 972.3.3 Identification of Malolactic Bacteria 982.3.4 Factors Affecting the Growth of Malolactic Bacteria 982.3.5 Interactions Between Bacteria and Other Organisms 1002.3.6 Spontaneous Malolactic Fermentation 1012.3.7 Inoculation with MLB Starter Culture 1012.3.8 The Growth of Bacterial Populations 1022.3.9 The Malolactic Fermentation Process 1032.3.10 Production of Diacetyl 1042.3.11 Microbial Stability 1042.3.12 Monitoring Malolactic Fermentation 1052.3.13 Finishing and/or Preventing Malolactic Fermentation 1052.3.14 Production of Biogenic Amines by Malolactic Bacteria 1062.3.15 Other Effects of MLF 1062.3.16 Malolactic Fermentation and Aroma 1072.3.17 Lactic Spoilage 111References 1122.4 Acetic and Other Fermentations 1142.4.1 Introduction 1142.4.2 Acetic Acid Bacteria 1152.4.3 Lactic Acid Bacteria 1172.4.4 The Activities of Yeasts other than Saccharomyces 1172.4.5 Film Forming Yeasts 1192.4.6 Molds 1202.4.7 Prevention of Spoilage 120References 1212.5 Preservatives Used in the Production of Alcoholic Beverages 1232.5.1 Introduction 1232.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 1232.5.3 The Roles of SO 2 1252.5.4 Sorbic Acid 1282.5.5 DMDC (Velcorin) 1292.5.6 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 1292.5.7 Pimaricin (Natamycin) 1302.5.8 Other Preservatives 130References 1312.6 Beer 1322.6.1 The Basic Brewing Processes 1322.6.2 Malting and Mashing 1342.6.3 Boiling the Wort 1482.6.4 Fermentation 1572.6.5 Top Fermentation 1632.6.6 Bottom Fermentation 1672.6.7 Other Fermentations 1692.6.8 Modern Methods of Fermentation 1712.6.9 Beer Treatment: Fining, Filtration and Pasteurization 1732.6.10 Packaging of Beer: Casking, Kegging, Bottling and Canning 1822.6.11 Dispensing of Draught Beers 1862.6.12 Oxidation and the Staling of Beer 1922.6.13 Beer styles 196References 2072.7 Cereal-based and Other Fermented Drinks of Asia, Africa and Central/South America 2112.7.1 The Rice ‘Wines’ of Asia 2122.7.2 Native Fermented Drinks of Africa and South America 222References 2292.8 Cider and Perry 2312.8.1 Introduction 2312.8.2 The Basic Ingredients 2332.8.3 Harvesting, Crushing and Pressing 2382.8.4 Fermentation and Maturation 2412.8.5 Traditional and Small-Scale Cider and Perry Production: Fermentation and Beyond 2452.8.6 Large-Scale (Factory) Production of Cider and Perry: Fermentation and Beyond 2512.8.7 Newer Techniques, Recent Developments and Innovations 2542.8.8 Cider and Perry from Around the World 257References 2632.9 Wine 2662.9.1 White Winemaking 2672.9.2 Red Wine Production 3002.9.3 Sparkling Wines 3242.9.4 Fining, Filtration and Clarification 3432.9.5 Wine Maturation and Ageing 3542.9.6 Some Current Trends in Wine Production 371References 3772.10 Fortified Wines and Liqueur Wines 3832.10.1 Overview and Scope 3832.10.2 Sherry and Other Flor Wines 3842.10.3 Flor and Oxidation in Sherry Wines 3912.10.4 Other Flor Wines 3942.10.5 Madeira 3952.10.6 Estufagem and Cask Maturation of Madeira Wine 3972.10.7 Port 3992.10.8 Marsala and Málaga 4082.10.9 Vins Doux Naturels, Liqueur Muscat and Similar Wines 4092.10.10 Vins de Liqueurs and Similar Beverages 414References 4162.11 Fruit Wines and Other Nongrape Wines 4192.11.1 Overview and Scope 4192.11.2 Comparison of Fruit for Winemaking 4202.11.3 Making Fruit Wines 4232.11.4 Country Wine Styles 4292.11.5 Mead 432References 4342.12 Aromatized Wines 4362.12.1 Introduction and Brief History of Aromatization of Wine 4362.12.2 Vermouth 4372.12.3 Other Aromatized Wines and Apéritifs 444References 4452.13 Low Alcohol and Non-Alcoholic Beers, Ciders and Wines 4472.13.1 Overview 4472.13.2 Production of Low Alcohol Beverages by Limited or Checked Alcohol Methods 4482.13.3 Dealcoholization Methods 450References 4533 Distilled Spirits 455Alan J. Buglass, Marianne McKay and Chang Gook Lee3.1 Introduction: Distillation Methods and Stills 4573.1.1 A Brief History and Theory of Distillation 4573.1.2 Batch Distillation 4613.1.3 Continuous Column Distillation 466References 4683.2 Scotch Whisky 4693.2.1 Introduction and Brief History 4693.2.2 The Raw Materials 4753.2.3 Malting, Mashing, Cooking and Fermentation 4793.2.4 Distillation 4873.2.5 Maturation, Blending and Other Postdistillation Processes 4913.2.6 The Flavor and Styles of Scotch Malt Whiskies 498References 5123.3 Whiskeys 5153.3.1 Scope 5153.3.2 Irish Whiskey 5163.3.3 The Whiskeys of America 5193.3.4 Bourbon and Tennessee Whiskey 5203.3.5 American Rye and Corn Whiskies 5273.3.6 Whiskies from Other Countries 528References 5333.4 Other Cereal Based Spirits 5353.4.1 Introduction and Scope 5353.4.2 Gin and Similar Juniper Flavored Spirits 5353.4.3 Akvavit (Aquavit) and Vodka 5413.4.4 Asian Grain Spirits 543References 5533.5 Cane Spirits, Vegetable Based Spirits and Aniseed Flavored Spirits 5553.5.1 Overview and Scope 5553.5.2 History and Basic Description of Rum and Cachaça 5563.5.3 Fermentation and Distillation Practices in the Production of Cachaça and Rum 5603.5.4 Flavor Characteristics of Rum and Cachaça 5643.5.5 Arrack, Mezcal and Tequila 5663.5.6 Aniseed Flavored Spirits 570References 5723.6 Brandy 5743.6.1 Introduction and Brief History 5743.6.2 Cognac 5853.6.3 Armagnac 5883.6.4 Other Brandies 5893.6.5 Quality Control in Brandy Production 5913.6.6 Evaluating Brandy 591References 5933.7 Grape and Other Pomace Spirits 5953.7.1 Introduction 5953.7.2 Production of Pomace Spirits 5963.7.3 Types of Pomace Spirits and Sensory Characteristics 598References 6003.8 Fruit Spirits 6023.8.1 Introduction 6023.8.2 Apple and Pear Spirits 6033.8.3 Fruit Spirits of Central Europe 6083.8.4 Plum Spirits of Eastern Europe 6113.8.5 Other Fruit Spirits 612References 6133.9 Liqueurs and Their Flavorings 6153.9.1 Introduction and Scope 6153.9.2 Fruit and Fruit Flavored Liqueurs 6173.9.3 Flower, Herb, Spice and Bitter Liqueurs 6203.9.4 Cocoa, Coffee and Tea Liqueurs 6243.9.5 Nut and Emulsion Liqueurs 6243.9.6 Production and Use of Essences and Concentrates 625References 626Volume 24 Analytical Methods 629Alan J. Buglass and Darren J. Caven-Quantrill4.1 Introduction 6314.1.1 Why Analyze Alcoholic Beverages? An Overview of the Need for Analysis 6324.1.2 Process Monitoring 6334.1.3 Identification of Origin, Determination of Authenticity and Detection of Fraud 6364.1.4 Determination and Characterization of Beverage Components and Processes 6394.1.5 Development of New Analytical Methods 642References 6454.2 Extraction and Focusing Methods in Sample Preparation 6474.2.1 Overview 6474.2.2 Liquid Extraction Techniques 6484.2.3 Distillation Methods 6594.2.4 Solid Phase Extraction and Related Methods (Sorption Techniques) 6644.2.5 Headspace Methods 6844.2.6 Combinations of Methods (With Particular Application to Enological Products) 6884.2.7 Summary 690References 6904.3 Chromatographic Methods 7054.3.1 Thin Layer Chromatography and Related Methods 7064.3.2 Capillary Gas Chromatography 7094.3.3 Liquid Chromatography 7224.3.4 Counter Current Chromatographic Methods 752References 7554.4 Spectroscopic Methods 7654.4.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 7674.4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 7844.4.3 Colorimetry, UV-Visible Spectroscopy and Fluorometry 7934.4.4 Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy 8144.4.5 Mass Spectrometry 825References 8434.5 Electrochemical Methods 8554.5.1 Potentiometric Methods 8564.5.2 Voltammetric Methods 8634.5.3 Electrochemical Sensors 869References 8734.6 Other Methods 8774.6.1 Electrophoretic Techniques 8774.6.2 Flow Injection Techniques 8894.6.3 Chemical and Physical Methods 896References 9074.7 Sensory Analysis 9134.7.1 Introduction 9134.7.2 Olfaction and Taste 9144.7.3 Odor Theshold, Odor Activity and Low Impact Odorants 9224.7.4 Sensory Tests 925References 9305 Nutritional and Health Aspects 933Nigel J. Fuller, Suk Hean Lee and Alan J. Buglass5.1 General Introduction 9355.1.1 ‘Alcohol’ in Perspective 9365.1.2 The Extent and General Implications of Alcoholic Beverage Consumption 9385.1.3 Ingredients, Processing and the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9415.1.4 Nutritional Considerations 9435.1.5 Summary 946References 9465.2 Factors Influencing the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9495.2.1 Wines 9515.2.2 Beers 9525.2.3 Cider and Perry 9555.2.4 Distilled Beverages 9555.2.5 Fortified wines 9575.2.6 Alcopops 9585.2.7 Cocktails 958References 9595.3 Macronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9615.3.1 Water 9635.3.2 Alcohol 9665.3.3 Carbohydrates (Including Fiber) 9675.3.4 Nitrogenous Compounds: Proteins, Peptides, Amino Acids, Amines and Nucleotides 9705.3.5 Lipids 972References 9735.4 Micronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages 9755.4.1 Vitamins 9775.4.2 Electrolytes and Functional Elements (Minerals and Trace Elements) 9815.4.3 Phytochemicals 986References 9905.5 Alcohol Ingestion, Absorption and Catabolism: Metabolic and Nutritional Consequences 9935.5.1 Alcohol Catabolism 9945.5.2 Methanol Catabolism 9975.5.3 Effects of Alcohol on Intake of Foods and Energy 9975.5.4 Consequences for Intermediary Metabolism of Alcohol Catabolism 9985.5.5 Effects of Alcohol and its Metabolites on Absorption, Metabolism and Utilization of Key Nutrients 1000References 10015.6 Health Consequences of Alcohol Intake 10035.6.1 Overview: Alcoholic Beverages and Society 10035.6.2 Harmful Effects of Excessive Alcohol Intake 10085.6.3 Possible Benefits of Low to Moderate Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages 10205.6.4 Conclusion 1022References 10225.7 Carbohydrates in Alcoholic Beverages and Health 10305.7.1 Metabolizable Carbohydrate 10305.7.2 Low Carbohydrate Beers 10335.7.3 High Carbohydrate Beers 10345.7.4 Nonmetabolizable Carbohydrate 1035References 10375.8 Antioxidant Value of Alcoholic Beverages 10385.8.1 Overview 10385.8.2 Summary of Aerobic Cell Metabolic Processes 10395.8.3 Short Review of Oxygen in Cell Metabolic Processes 10395.8.4 Incomplete Reduction of Oxygen, the Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cell Damage 10415.8.5 Natural Antioxidants in Food 10435.8.6 Phenolic Substances in Alcoholic Beverages 10445.8.7 Some Chemical Characteristics of Phenolic Compounds 10455.8.8 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Potency of Alcoholic Beverages, their Phenolic Extracts and their Individual Phenolic Components 10505.8.9 Mechanisms of In Vivo Health Benefits of Dietary Phenols: Antioxidants or Otherwise? 1054References 10615.9 Additives in Alcoholic Beverages 10655.9.1 Introduction 10655.9.2 Sulfur Dioxide and Other Preservatives 10655.9.3 Fining Agents and Adjuncts 10685.9.4 Other Additives 10695.9.5 Regulations and Legislation Relating to Additives 1071References 10735.10 Residues in Alcoholic Beverages 10765.10.1 Introduction 10765.10.2 Pesticides 10765.10.3 Metal and Nonmetal Residues 10825.10.4 Industrial Contaminants 1086References 10915.11 Other Trace Substances in Alcoholic Beverages 10935.11.1 Introduction 10935.11.2 Phytochemicals 10935.11.3 Nitrogenous Allergenic Substances 10985.11.4 Mycotoxins 11015.11.5 Other Trace Substances 1104References 1107Appendix 1 Units of Measurement and Interconversions 1111Appendix 2 1113Appendix 3 Pressure and Temperature Unit Conversions, and Numerical Values of Constants 1115Glossary 1117Index 1141