Compositional and Failure Analysis of Polymers

John Scheirs ExcelPlas, Australia

"an invaluable guide to all analysts and polymer engineers in industrial and academic laboratories: it can therefore be recommended without any reservations." (Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, Vol.202, No.6, 2001)

• Preface xxxiAbout the Author xxxiiiAcknowledgements xxxvGlossary xxxvii1 A Methodology for Solving Polymer Problems 11 Introduction 12 Flow Diagram for Solving Polymer Problems 43 Dealing with Special Problem Classes 124 Product Life Cycle 155 Checklist and Worksheet for Organizing the Problem-Solving Process 17References 202 Sampling and Sample Preparation 211 Introduction 212 Sampling 223 Sample Storage 234 Sample Preparation 24References 363 Microscopy of Polymers 371 Optical Microscopy Techniques 372 Electron Microscopy 553 Special Microscopic Techniques 604 Practical Examples of the Uses of Microscopy in Polymer Analysis 65References 704 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis Methods for Polymers 711 Introduction 712 FTIR Techniques 733 Special IR Techniques 844 Sample Preparation 875 FTIR Analysis of Difficult Sample Forms 936 Interpreting and Validating FTIR Data 1017 Derivatization Techniques 105References 1065 Thermal Analysis of Polymers 1071 Introduction 1072 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 1082.2.11 Evaluating Heat Ageing of Amorphous Polymers 1213 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis 1294 Dynamic Mechanical Rheological Testing 1315 Thermomechanical Analysis 1326 Glass Transition Temperature and its Determination 1337 Thermogravimetry 1388 Thermal Volatilization Analysis 145References 1456 Identification and Analysis of Polymers 1471 Introduction 1472 Examples of Analytical Techniques used for Common Polymers 1537 Analysis of Blends, Copolymers and Oligomers 1931 Polymer Blends 1932 Copolymers 2013 Oligomers 206References 2138 Identification and Analysis of Thermoset Elastomers 2151 Thermogravimeny 2152 FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis of Carbon-Filled Rubbers 2223 Rubber Identification by Pyrolysis Methods 2234 Analysis of Specific Rubber Types 224References 2289 Analysis of 'Difficult' or Intractable Polymer Samples 230l Introduction 2302 FTIR Spectroscopic Techniques for Difficult Samples 2303 Pyrolysis of Intractable Samples 2334 Thennogravimetry 2365 Laser-Desorption Fourier-Transfonn Mass Spectrometry 237References 23910 Analysis of Additives in Polymers and Elastomers 2401 Introduction 2402 Grinding 2413 Additive Extraction 2424 Analysis Methods 2485 In situ Additive Analysis in Rubbers 2596 Miscellaneous Examples of Additive Analysis Methods 260References 26811 Analysis of Contaminants and Inclusions in Polymers 2701 Introduction   2702 Classes of Typical Contamination 2713 Techniques for Analysis of Contamination 2803.1 Optical Microscopy 2804 Gel Particles and other Inclusions 288References 30212 Mechanical Failure Mechanisms of Polymers 3041 Introduction 3042 Tensile Failure 3103 Shear Failure 3104 Compressive Failure 3115 Crazing 3116 Shear Banding 3137 Creep 3158 Fatigue Failure 3178.1 Introduction 3179 Impact Fracture 32410 Physical Ageing 33011 Failure Due to Temperature Effects 33311.1 Maximum- and Minimum-Use Temperatures 33312 Failure Due to Improper Processing 33613 General Examples of Polymer Failure 33914 Failure of Medical Plastics 35215 Failure of Polymers and Elastomers by Explosive Decompression 35216 Failure Analysis by Fractography 359References 36113 Chemical Attack of Polymers 3631 Introduction 3632 Factors Determining Chemical Resistance 3653 Types of Chemical Attack 3654 Analysis Methods for Assessing Chemical Degradation 3915 Case Study 395References 39514 Oxidative Degradation of Polymers 3971 Introduction 3972 Accelerated Ageing Techniques 4103 Testing Methods 414References 44315 Failure of Fibre-Reinforced Composites 4491 Introduction 4492 Fibre Adhesion in Composites 4523 Failure of Composites due to Manufacturing and Cure-Related Factors 4544 Failure Behaviour of Composites 4585 Failure of Composites due to Thermal Effects 4716 Effects of Moisture on Composites 4737 Chemical Attack on Composites 4748 Oxidative Degradation 4759 Photo-Oxidative Degradation of Fibre Reinforcements 47510 Radiation Degradation of Composites 47611 Failure Testing of Composites 47612 Fractography of Composites 477References 48016 Problems Related to Additives in Polymers 4821 Introduction 4822 Blooming 4823 Sublimation 4874 Plateout     4885 Die Drool 4896 Bleeding 4907 Additive Migration 4918 Additive Interactions 4929 Additive Decomposition 49610 Additive-Induced Polymer Decomposition 50211 Additive Dispersion Problems 50712 Effect of Additives on the Polymers Mechanical Properties 51413 Pigment-Induced Distortion 51514 Abrasion 516References 51617 Weathering of Polymers 5181 Introduction 5182 Preliminary Investigations 5223 Case Studies 5234 Problems with Other Polymer Types and Applications 5365 Polymer Weatherability Assessment (Accelerated Weathering) 541References 54518 Environmental Stress Cracking of Polymers 5461 Introduction 5462 ESC Mechanisms 5493 Special Applications where ESC is likely to Occur 5544 Testing Methods to Determine ESC Resistance 5565 Surface-Tension and Solubility-Parameter Effects 5616 ESC Behaviour of Particular Polymers 5637 Investigating an ESC Failure 5788 ESC Case Study 581References 58519 Residual Stresses and Weld Lines in Polymers 5871 Introduction 5972 Residual Stresses and Molecular Orientation 5903 Weldlines 6074 Shrinkage and Warpage 617References 61920 Odour, Tainting and Outgassing Problems with Polymers 6221 Odour Problems in Polymers 6222 Taste and Off-Flavours 6323 Out-Gassing 6364 Volatiles in Polymers and Their Detection 640References 64521 Adhesion Problems with Polymers and Interfaces 6471 Introduction 6472 Case Studies 6493 Common Classes of Polymerie Adhesives 6604 Common Causes of Adhesive Failure 662References 66822 Voids, Blisters and Surface Defects 6701 Voids 6702 Blisters 6833 Surface Defects 689References 69123 Discoloration of Polymers 6921 Introduction 6922 Polyolefins 6973 Aromatic Polymers Containing Ph–O or Ph–N Linkages 7164 Aromatic Polymers containing Ph–C=O or Ph–S Linkages 7215 Nitrile Polymers 7266 Vinyl Polymers 7297 Miscellaneous Polymers 7338 Radiation Yellowing 736References 738Index 741