Elizabeth Hood, Ph.D, is a Distinguished Professor of Agriculture at Arkansas State University. Peter Nelson is a principal in BioDimensions, providing services for startup companies developing green technology. Randy Powell, Ph.D, is the president of Powell Consulting, LLC, a construction consulting firm promoting biofuel and bioproducts.

"Overall it gives very good insights on biomass feedstocks for all uses of biomass as well as fermentation technologies mainly for biofuels." (Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, 30 August 2011)

• Contributors xiPreface xiii1 The Bioeconomy: A New Era of Products Derived from Renewable Plant-Based Feedstocks 3Peter Nelson, Elizabeth Hood, and Randall Powell1.1 Introduction 31.2 Market Opportunity for Biofuels and Biobased Products 51.3 Feedstocks 61.3.1 Biobased Feedstock Availability and Issues 61.3.2 Characterization of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 81.3.3 The Role of Agricultural Biotechnology 91.3.4 Biomass Agricultural Equipment Development 111.4 The Biochemical Technology Platform 111.5 Investment and Major Players 121.6 The Role of the Farmer 141.7 Opportunities for Rural Development 161.8 Environmental Benefits 171.9 Economic Comparison of the Biochemical and Thermochemical Technology Platforms 171.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 18References 192 Agricultural Residues 21James Hettenhaus2.1 Introduction 212.1.1 Key Issues 222.2 Feedstock Supply 232.2.1 Residue Markets 262.2.2 Harvest Window 272.2.3 Residue Removal 272.2.4 Residue Management 282.2.5 Ag Equipment Needs 292.2.6 Operating Costs 332.2.7 Residue Nutrient Value 332.2.8 Land for Energy Crops 332.2.9 Farmer Outlook 342.2.10 Crop Research and Development 342.3 Feedstock Logistics 342.3.1 Bulk Density 352.3.2 Storage 362.3.3 Regional Biomass Processing Centers 432.4 Conclusion 48Endnotes 49References 493 Growing Systems for Traditional and New Forest-Based Materials 51Randall Rousseau, Janet Hawkes, Shijie Liu, and Tom Amidon3.1 Introduction 513.2 Natural Regeneration 543.3 Overall Growing Systems 543.3.1 The Beginnings of Biomass Plantation Production 553.3.2 Short Rotation Woody Crops 563.3.3 Other Types of Hardwood Plantations 593.3.4 Southern Pine 613.4 New Genetic Tools 623.5 Agroforestry 633.6 Products from Woody Biomass 673.6.1 Hemicellulosic Products 693.6.2 Biorefineries Using Woody Biomass 713.6.3 Hot-Water Extraction of Hemicellulose 733.6.4 Wood Extracts: Processing and Conversion 753.6.5 Residual Solid Wood Biomass: Processing and Conversion of the wood mass after extraction, an example 783.7 Summary 78References 784 Dedicated Herbaceous Energy Crops 85Keat (Thomas) Teoh, Shivakumar Pattada Devaiah, Deborah Vicuna Requesens, and Elizabeth E. Hood4.1 Introduction 854.2 Miscanthus 854.2.1 Characteristics That Make Miscanthus a Potential Biomass Crop 874.2.2 Agronomy 874.3 Sweet Sorghum 904.3.1 Biology of Sweet Sorghum 924.3.2 Production 924.3.3 Potential Yields 944.3.4 Economic and Environmental Advantages of Sweet Sorghum 944.3.5 Production Challenges 964.4 Switchgrass 974.4.1 Physiology 974.4.2 Switchgrass Ecotypes 984.4.3 Advantages 984.4.4 Disadvantages 994.4.5 Yields 1004.4.6 Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop 1014.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 101References 1045 Municipal Solid Waste as a Biomass Feedstock 109David J. Webster5.1 Introduction 1095.2 Definitions 1105.2.1 Second-Generation Conversion Technologies for Biofuels 1105.3 Disposal Infrastructure and Transfer Stations 1105.3.1 Collection Practices 1125.3.2 Cost Parameters 1125.4 Waste Generation 1135.5 Waste Characterization 1145.5.1 Composition of Generated MSW Prior to Disposal or Processing 1145.5.2 Landfilled Waste Compared to Waste Generation 1155.5.3 Water in MSW 1165.5.4 Heavy Metals in MSW 1175.6 Preparing MSW for Conversion Processing—Mixed Waste Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) 1195.6.1 Presorting 1215.6.2 Mechanical Sorting Operations 1225.6.3 Manual Sorting Operations 1235.6.4 Recovery Rates of the MRF System 1235.7 Cellulosic Content of MSW 1245.7.1 Glucose and Ethanol Yields from MSW 1245.8 Framing the Potential 125References 1266 Water Sustainability in Biomass Cropping Systems 129Jennifer L. Bouldin and Rodney E. Wright6.1 Introduction 1296.2 Water Use in Bioenergy Production 1306.3 Water Quality Issues in Bioenergy Crops 1336.3.1 AGNPS Watershed Model 1356.3.2 Water Quality and the Gulf Hypoxic Zone 1386.4 Conclusions—Water Quantity and Quality 138References 1397 Soil Sustainability Issues in Energy Crop Production 143V. Steven Green7.1 Soil Sustainability Concepts 1437.2 Bioenergy Crops and Soil Sustainability 1457.2.1 Crop Residues 1457.2.2 Dedicated Energy Crops 1467.3 Resource Use in Biomass Production 1497.3.1 Water and Soil 1497.3.2 Land Use 1507.4 Soil Sustainability Solutions 1507.5 Conclusion 154References 1548 Fermentation Organisms for 5- and 6-Carbon Sugars 157Nicholas Dufour, Jeffrey Swana, and Reeta P. Rao8.1 Introduction 1578.2 Fermentation 1598.3 Metabolic Pathways 1608.4 Fermenting Species 1618.4.1 Brief Description of Major Species 1758.5 Other Relevant Products 1808.6 Summary 183Endnotes 183References 1849 Pretreatment Options 199Bradley A. Saville9.1 Overview of Pretreatment Technologies 1999.1.1 History 1999.1.2 Mechanistic Assessment of Pretreatment 2009.1.3 Severity Factor Concept 2039.2 Pretreatment Classification 2059.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment Processes 2069.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment Processes 2069.2.3 Thermochemical Pretreatment Processes 2099.2.4 Impact on Moisture Content and Hydraulic Load 2109.3 Laboratory vs. Commercial Scale Pretreatment—What Do We Really Know? 2119.3.1 Laboratory Studies 2119.3.2 Pilot/Demonstration Scale Studies 2119.3.3 Limitations of Laboratory-Scale Comparisons of Pretreatment Methods 2149.4 Process Issues and Trade-Offs 2159.4.1 Inhibitors 2159.4.2 Hydrolysis Efficiency and Enzyme Loadings 2189.4.3 Solvent/Catalyst Recovery 2189.4.4 Viscosity Reduction and Hydraulic Load 2189.5 Economics 2209.6 Conclusions 224References 22410 Enzyme Production Systems for Biomass Conversion 227John A. Howard, Zivko Nikolov, and Elizabeth E. Hood10.1 Introduction 22710.2 The Challenge: Volume and Cost of Enzymes Required 22710.3 Theoretical Ways to Address the Challenge of Quantity of Enzyme and Cost Requirements 22810.3.1 Increase Susceptibility for Biomass Deconstruction 22910.3.2 Decrease Exogenous Enzyme Load 23110.3.3 Increase Accumulation of Enzymes in Production Host 23610.4 Cost of Producing Exogenous Enzymes 24010.4.1 Cost Analysis 24210.5 Summary and Future Prospects 245References 24611 Fermentation-Based Biofuels 255Randy Kramer and Helene Belanger11.1 Introduction 25511.2 First-Generation Biofuels 25611.2.1 Starch-Based Ethanol—United States 25611.2.2 Sugar-Based Ethanol—Brazil 25711.2.3 Biodiesel 25811.3 Policy and Biofuel Implementation Status 26011.3.1 North America 26011.3.2 South America 26211.3.3 Europe 26211.3.4 Asia 26311.4 Second-Generation Biofuels 26511.4.1 Cellulosic Ethanol 26511.4.2 Biobutanol 26811.5 Issues for Biofuels Commercial Success 26911.5.1 Transport by Pipeline 26911.5.2 Decentralized Production and Local Distribution 27011.5.3 Optimized Engine Performance 27111.5.4 Value of Biorefinery Co-products 27211.6 Summary 272References 27212 Biobased Chemicals and Polymers 275Randall W. Powell, Clare Elton, Ross Prestidge, and Helene Belanger12.1 Introduction 27512.2 Biobased Feedstock Components 27612.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies 27712.3.1 Technology Platforms Overview 27712.3.2 Lignocellulose Fractionation Overview 27912.4 Biobased Products 28712.4.1 Oil-Based Products 28712.4.2 Sugar/Starch-Based Products 28912.4.3 Polymer Products 29312.4.4 Lignin Products 29912.5 Summary 303References 30413 Carbon Offset Potential of Biomass-Based Energy 311Gauri-Shankar Guha13.1 Emerging Public Interest in Carbon 31113.1.1 Overview 31113.1.2 Initiatives to Address Anthropogenic Climate Change 31113.1.3 GHG Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration Strategies 31413.2 Theory of Carbon Markets 31413.2.1 Tradable Permits and the Market for Emissions 31413.2.2 Concept of Carbon Markets 31513.2.3 Demand and Supply of Carbon Credits 31613.3 Creation of Carbon Markets 31713.3.1 Carbon Credits 31713.3.2 Global Carbon Trade 31813.3.3 Carbon Trading in the United States 31813.3.4 The CCX Offset Program 31813.4 Role of Biomass-Based Energy in Carbon Markets 31913.4.1 Economic Significance of Bioenergy 31913.4.2 Bioenergy Policies, Practices, and Trends 32113.4.3 Carbon Offset Opportunities for Biofuels 32313.5 Prognosis of Carbon Markets 324References 32514 Biofuel Economics 329Daniel Klein-Marcuschamer, Brad Holmes, Blake A. Simmons, and Harvey W. Blanch14.1 Introduction 32914.2 Production Processes 33014.3 Biomass Transportation and Handling 33114.4 Conversion of Biomass into Sugars 33214.5 Conversion of Sugars into Biofuels 33514.6 Separation and Purification 33714.7 Co-product Handling 33714.8 Major Cost Drivers 33814.8.1 Biomass-Associated Costs 33814.8.2 Capital Expenses 34014.8.3 Operating Costs 34214.9 Risks 34314.10 Policy Support 34514.11 Infrastructure and Vehicle Modifications 34614.12 Conclusions 34714.13 Acknowledgments 348References 348Index 355

Elizabeth Hood, Ph.D, is a Distinguished Professor of Agriculture at Arkansas State University. Peter Nelson is a principal in BioDimensions, providing services for startup companies developing green technology. Randy Powell, Ph.D, is the president of Powell Consulting, LLC, a construction consulting firm promoting biofuel and bioproducts.

"Overall it gives very good insights on biomass feedstocks for all uses of biomass as well as fermentation technologies mainly for biofuels." (Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, 30 August 2011)

• Contributors xiPreface xiii1 The Bioeconomy: A New Era of Products Derived from Renewable Plant-Based Feedstocks 3Peter Nelson, Elizabeth Hood, and Randall Powell1.1 Introduction 31.2 Market Opportunity for Biofuels and Biobased Products 51.3 Feedstocks 61.3.1 Biobased Feedstock Availability and Issues 61.3.2 Characterization of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 81.3.3 The Role of Agricultural Biotechnology 91.3.4 Biomass Agricultural Equipment Development 111.4 The Biochemical Technology Platform 111.5 Investment and Major Players 121.6 The Role of the Farmer 141.7 Opportunities for Rural Development 161.8 Environmental Benefits 171.9 Economic Comparison of the Biochemical and Thermochemical Technology Platforms 171.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 18References 192 Agricultural Residues 21James Hettenhaus2.1 Introduction 212.1.1 Key Issues 222.2 Feedstock Supply 232.2.1 Residue Markets 262.2.2 Harvest Window 272.2.3 Residue Removal 272.2.4 Residue Management 282.2.5 Ag Equipment Needs 292.2.6 Operating Costs 332.2.7 Residue Nutrient Value 332.2.8 Land for Energy Crops 332.2.9 Farmer Outlook 342.2.10 Crop Research and Development 342.3 Feedstock Logistics 342.3.1 Bulk Density 352.3.2 Storage 362.3.3 Regional Biomass Processing Centers 432.4 Conclusion 48Endnotes 49References 493 Growing Systems for Traditional and New Forest-Based Materials 51Randall Rousseau, Janet Hawkes, Shijie Liu, and Tom Amidon3.1 Introduction 513.2 Natural Regeneration 543.3 Overall Growing Systems 543.3.1 The Beginnings of Biomass Plantation Production 553.3.2 Short Rotation Woody Crops 563.3.3 Other Types of Hardwood Plantations 593.3.4 Southern Pine 613.4 New Genetic Tools 623.5 Agroforestry 633.6 Products from Woody Biomass 673.6.1 Hemicellulosic Products 693.6.2 Biorefineries Using Woody Biomass 713.6.3 Hot-Water Extraction of Hemicellulose 733.6.4 Wood Extracts: Processing and Conversion 753.6.5 Residual Solid Wood Biomass: Processing and Conversion of the wood mass after extraction, an example 783.7 Summary 78References 784 Dedicated Herbaceous Energy Crops 85Keat (Thomas) Teoh, Shivakumar Pattada Devaiah, Deborah Vicuna Requesens, and Elizabeth E. Hood4.1 Introduction 854.2 Miscanthus 854.2.1 Characteristics That Make Miscanthus a Potential Biomass Crop 874.2.2 Agronomy 874.3 Sweet Sorghum 904.3.1 Biology of Sweet Sorghum 924.3.2 Production 924.3.3 Potential Yields 944.3.4 Economic and Environmental Advantages of Sweet Sorghum 944.3.5 Production Challenges 964.4 Switchgrass 974.4.1 Physiology 974.4.2 Switchgrass Ecotypes 984.4.3 Advantages 984.4.4 Disadvantages 994.4.5 Yields 1004.4.6 Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop 1014.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 101References 1045 Municipal Solid Waste as a Biomass Feedstock 109David J. Webster5.1 Introduction 1095.2 Definitions 1105.2.1 Second-Generation Conversion Technologies for Biofuels 1105.3 Disposal Infrastructure and Transfer Stations 1105.3.1 Collection Practices 1125.3.2 Cost Parameters 1125.4 Waste Generation 1135.5 Waste Characterization 1145.5.1 Composition of Generated MSW Prior to Disposal or Processing 1145.5.2 Landfilled Waste Compared to Waste Generation 1155.5.3 Water in MSW 1165.5.4 Heavy Metals in MSW 1175.6 Preparing MSW for Conversion Processing—Mixed Waste Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) 1195.6.1 Presorting 1215.6.2 Mechanical Sorting Operations 1225.6.3 Manual Sorting Operations 1235.6.4 Recovery Rates of the MRF System 1235.7 Cellulosic Content of MSW 1245.7.1 Glucose and Ethanol Yields from MSW 1245.8 Framing the Potential 125References 1266 Water Sustainability in Biomass Cropping Systems 129Jennifer L. Bouldin and Rodney E. Wright6.1 Introduction 1296.2 Water Use in Bioenergy Production 1306.3 Water Quality Issues in Bioenergy Crops 1336.3.1 AGNPS Watershed Model 1356.3.2 Water Quality and the Gulf Hypoxic Zone 1386.4 Conclusions—Water Quantity and Quality 138References 1397 Soil Sustainability Issues in Energy Crop Production 143V. Steven Green7.1 Soil Sustainability Concepts 1437.2 Bioenergy Crops and Soil Sustainability 1457.2.1 Crop Residues 1457.2.2 Dedicated Energy Crops 1467.3 Resource Use in Biomass Production 1497.3.1 Water and Soil 1497.3.2 Land Use 1507.4 Soil Sustainability Solutions 1507.5 Conclusion 154References 1548 Fermentation Organisms for 5- and 6-Carbon Sugars 157Nicholas Dufour, Jeffrey Swana, and Reeta P. Rao8.1 Introduction 1578.2 Fermentation 1598.3 Metabolic Pathways 1608.4 Fermenting Species 1618.4.1 Brief Description of Major Species 1758.5 Other Relevant Products 1808.6 Summary 183Endnotes 183References 1849 Pretreatment Options 199Bradley A. Saville9.1 Overview of Pretreatment Technologies 1999.1.1 History 1999.1.2 Mechanistic Assessment of Pretreatment 2009.1.3 Severity Factor Concept 2039.2 Pretreatment Classification 2059.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment Processes 2069.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment Processes 2069.2.3 Thermochemical Pretreatment Processes 2099.2.4 Impact on Moisture Content and Hydraulic Load 2109.3 Laboratory vs. Commercial Scale Pretreatment—What Do We Really Know? 2119.3.1 Laboratory Studies 2119.3.2 Pilot/Demonstration Scale Studies 2119.3.3 Limitations of Laboratory-Scale Comparisons of Pretreatment Methods 2149.4 Process Issues and Trade-Offs 2159.4.1 Inhibitors 2159.4.2 Hydrolysis Efficiency and Enzyme Loadings 2189.4.3 Solvent/Catalyst Recovery 2189.4.4 Viscosity Reduction and Hydraulic Load 2189.5 Economics 2209.6 Conclusions 224References 22410 Enzyme Production Systems for Biomass Conversion 227John A. Howard, Zivko Nikolov, and Elizabeth E. Hood10.1 Introduction 22710.2 The Challenge: Volume and Cost of Enzymes Required 22710.3 Theoretical Ways to Address the Challenge of Quantity of Enzyme and Cost Requirements 22810.3.1 Increase Susceptibility for Biomass Deconstruction 22910.3.2 Decrease Exogenous Enzyme Load 23110.3.3 Increase Accumulation of Enzymes in Production Host 23610.4 Cost of Producing Exogenous Enzymes 24010.4.1 Cost Analysis 24210.5 Summary and Future Prospects 245References 24611 Fermentation-Based Biofuels 255Randy Kramer and Helene Belanger11.1 Introduction 25511.2 First-Generation Biofuels 25611.2.1 Starch-Based Ethanol—United States 25611.2.2 Sugar-Based Ethanol—Brazil 25711.2.3 Biodiesel 25811.3 Policy and Biofuel Implementation Status 26011.3.1 North America 26011.3.2 South America 26211.3.3 Europe 26211.3.4 Asia 26311.4 Second-Generation Biofuels 26511.4.1 Cellulosic Ethanol 26511.4.2 Biobutanol 26811.5 Issues for Biofuels Commercial Success 26911.5.1 Transport by Pipeline 26911.5.2 Decentralized Production and Local Distribution 27011.5.3 Optimized Engine Performance 27111.5.4 Value of Biorefinery Co-products 27211.6 Summary 272References 27212 Biobased Chemicals and Polymers 275Randall W. Powell, Clare Elton, Ross Prestidge, and Helene Belanger12.1 Introduction 27512.2 Biobased Feedstock Components 27612.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies 27712.3.1 Technology Platforms Overview 27712.3.2 Lignocellulose Fractionation Overview 27912.4 Biobased Products 28712.4.1 Oil-Based Products 28712.4.2 Sugar/Starch-Based Products 28912.4.3 Polymer Products 29312.4.4 Lignin Products 29912.5 Summary 303References 30413 Carbon Offset Potential of Biomass-Based Energy 311Gauri-Shankar Guha13.1 Emerging Public Interest in Carbon 31113.1.1 Overview 31113.1.2 Initiatives to Address Anthropogenic Climate Change 31113.1.3 GHG Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration Strategies 31413.2 Theory of Carbon Markets 31413.2.1 Tradable Permits and the Market for Emissions 31413.2.2 Concept of Carbon Markets 31513.2.3 Demand and Supply of Carbon Credits 31613.3 Creation of Carbon Markets 31713.3.1 Carbon Credits 31713.3.2 Global Carbon Trade 31813.3.3 Carbon Trading in the United States 31813.3.4 The CCX Offset Program 31813.4 Role of Biomass-Based Energy in Carbon Markets 31913.4.1 Economic Significance of Bioenergy 31913.4.2 Bioenergy Policies, Practices, and Trends 32113.4.3 Carbon Offset Opportunities for Biofuels 32313.5 Prognosis of Carbon Markets 324References 32514 Biofuel Economics 329Daniel Klein-Marcuschamer, Brad Holmes, Blake A. Simmons, and Harvey W. Blanch14.1 Introduction 32914.2 Production Processes 33014.3 Biomass Transportation and Handling 33114.4 Conversion of Biomass into Sugars 33214.5 Conversion of Sugars into Biofuels 33514.6 Separation and Purification 33714.7 Co-product Handling 33714.8 Major Cost Drivers 33814.8.1 Biomass-Associated Costs 33814.8.2 Capital Expenses 34014.8.3 Operating Costs 34214.9 Risks 34314.10 Policy Support 34514.11 Infrastructure and Vehicle Modifications 34614.12 Conclusions 34714.13 Acknowledgments 348References 348Index 355

Elizabeth Hood, Ph.D, is a Distinguished Professor of Agriculture at Arkansas State University. Peter Nelson is a principal in BioDimensions, providing services for startup companies developing green technology. Randy Powell, Ph.D, is the president of Powell Consulting, LLC, a construction consulting firm promoting biofuel and bioproducts.

"Overall it gives very good insights on biomass feedstocks for all uses of biomass as well as fermentation technologies mainly for biofuels." (Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, 30 August 2011)

• Contributors xiPreface xiii1 The Bioeconomy: A New Era of Products Derived from Renewable Plant-Based Feedstocks 3Peter Nelson, Elizabeth Hood, and Randall Powell1.1 Introduction 31.2 Market Opportunity for Biofuels and Biobased Products 51.3 Feedstocks 61.3.1 Biobased Feedstock Availability and Issues 61.3.2 Characterization of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 81.3.3 The Role of Agricultural Biotechnology 91.3.4 Biomass Agricultural Equipment Development 111.4 The Biochemical Technology Platform 111.5 Investment and Major Players 121.6 The Role of the Farmer 141.7 Opportunities for Rural Development 161.8 Environmental Benefits 171.9 Economic Comparison of the Biochemical and Thermochemical Technology Platforms 171.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 18References 192 Agricultural Residues 21James Hettenhaus2.1 Introduction 212.1.1 Key Issues 222.2 Feedstock Supply 232.2.1 Residue Markets 262.2.2 Harvest Window 272.2.3 Residue Removal 272.2.4 Residue Management 282.2.5 Ag Equipment Needs 292.2.6 Operating Costs 332.2.7 Residue Nutrient Value 332.2.8 Land for Energy Crops 332.2.9 Farmer Outlook 342.2.10 Crop Research and Development 342.3 Feedstock Logistics 342.3.1 Bulk Density 352.3.2 Storage 362.3.3 Regional Biomass Processing Centers 432.4 Conclusion 48Endnotes 49References 493 Growing Systems for Traditional and New Forest-Based Materials 51Randall Rousseau, Janet Hawkes, Shijie Liu, and Tom Amidon3.1 Introduction 513.2 Natural Regeneration 543.3 Overall Growing Systems 543.3.1 The Beginnings of Biomass Plantation Production 553.3.2 Short Rotation Woody Crops 563.3.3 Other Types of Hardwood Plantations 593.3.4 Southern Pine 613.4 New Genetic Tools 623.5 Agroforestry 633.6 Products from Woody Biomass 673.6.1 Hemicellulosic Products 693.6.2 Biorefineries Using Woody Biomass 713.6.3 Hot-Water Extraction of Hemicellulose 733.6.4 Wood Extracts: Processing and Conversion 753.6.5 Residual Solid Wood Biomass: Processing and Conversion of the wood mass after extraction, an example 783.7 Summary 78References 784 Dedicated Herbaceous Energy Crops 85Keat (Thomas) Teoh, Shivakumar Pattada Devaiah, Deborah Vicuna Requesens, and Elizabeth E. Hood4.1 Introduction 854.2 Miscanthus 854.2.1 Characteristics That Make Miscanthus a Potential Biomass Crop 874.2.2 Agronomy 874.3 Sweet Sorghum 904.3.1 Biology of Sweet Sorghum 924.3.2 Production 924.3.3 Potential Yields 944.3.4 Economic and Environmental Advantages of Sweet Sorghum 944.3.5 Production Challenges 964.4 Switchgrass 974.4.1 Physiology 974.4.2 Switchgrass Ecotypes 984.4.3 Advantages 984.4.4 Disadvantages 994.4.5 Yields 1004.4.6 Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop 1014.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 101References 1045 Municipal Solid Waste as a Biomass Feedstock 109David J. Webster5.1 Introduction 1095.2 Definitions 1105.2.1 Second-Generation Conversion Technologies for Biofuels 1105.3 Disposal Infrastructure and Transfer Stations 1105.3.1 Collection Practices 1125.3.2 Cost Parameters 1125.4 Waste Generation 1135.5 Waste Characterization 1145.5.1 Composition of Generated MSW Prior to Disposal or Processing 1145.5.2 Landfilled Waste Compared to Waste Generation 1155.5.3 Water in MSW 1165.5.4 Heavy Metals in MSW 1175.6 Preparing MSW for Conversion Processing—Mixed Waste Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) 1195.6.1 Presorting 1215.6.2 Mechanical Sorting Operations 1225.6.3 Manual Sorting Operations 1235.6.4 Recovery Rates of the MRF System 1235.7 Cellulosic Content of MSW 1245.7.1 Glucose and Ethanol Yields from MSW 1245.8 Framing the Potential 125References 1266 Water Sustainability in Biomass Cropping Systems 129Jennifer L. Bouldin and Rodney E. Wright6.1 Introduction 1296.2 Water Use in Bioenergy Production 1306.3 Water Quality Issues in Bioenergy Crops 1336.3.1 AGNPS Watershed Model 1356.3.2 Water Quality and the Gulf Hypoxic Zone 1386.4 Conclusions—Water Quantity and Quality 138References 1397 Soil Sustainability Issues in Energy Crop Production 143V. Steven Green7.1 Soil Sustainability Concepts 1437.2 Bioenergy Crops and Soil Sustainability 1457.2.1 Crop Residues 1457.2.2 Dedicated Energy Crops 1467.3 Resource Use in Biomass Production 1497.3.1 Water and Soil 1497.3.2 Land Use 1507.4 Soil Sustainability Solutions 1507.5 Conclusion 154References 1548 Fermentation Organisms for 5- and 6-Carbon Sugars 157Nicholas Dufour, Jeffrey Swana, and Reeta P. Rao8.1 Introduction 1578.2 Fermentation 1598.3 Metabolic Pathways 1608.4 Fermenting Species 1618.4.1 Brief Description of Major Species 1758.5 Other Relevant Products 1808.6 Summary 183Endnotes 183References 1849 Pretreatment Options 199Bradley A. Saville9.1 Overview of Pretreatment Technologies 1999.1.1 History 1999.1.2 Mechanistic Assessment of Pretreatment 2009.1.3 Severity Factor Concept 2039.2 Pretreatment Classification 2059.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment Processes 2069.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment Processes 2069.2.3 Thermochemical Pretreatment Processes 2099.2.4 Impact on Moisture Content and Hydraulic Load 2109.3 Laboratory vs. Commercial Scale Pretreatment—What Do We Really Know? 2119.3.1 Laboratory Studies 2119.3.2 Pilot/Demonstration Scale Studies 2119.3.3 Limitations of Laboratory-Scale Comparisons of Pretreatment Methods 2149.4 Process Issues and Trade-Offs 2159.4.1 Inhibitors 2159.4.2 Hydrolysis Efficiency and Enzyme Loadings 2189.4.3 Solvent/Catalyst Recovery 2189.4.4 Viscosity Reduction and Hydraulic Load 2189.5 Economics 2209.6 Conclusions 224References 22410 Enzyme Production Systems for Biomass Conversion 227John A. Howard, Zivko Nikolov, and Elizabeth E. Hood10.1 Introduction 22710.2 The Challenge: Volume and Cost of Enzymes Required 22710.3 Theoretical Ways to Address the Challenge of Quantity of Enzyme and Cost Requirements 22810.3.1 Increase Susceptibility for Biomass Deconstruction 22910.3.2 Decrease Exogenous Enzyme Load 23110.3.3 Increase Accumulation of Enzymes in Production Host 23610.4 Cost of Producing Exogenous Enzymes 24010.4.1 Cost Analysis 24210.5 Summary and Future Prospects 245References 24611 Fermentation-Based Biofuels 255Randy Kramer and Helene Belanger11.1 Introduction 25511.2 First-Generation Biofuels 25611.2.1 Starch-Based Ethanol—United States 25611.2.2 Sugar-Based Ethanol—Brazil 25711.2.3 Biodiesel 25811.3 Policy and Biofuel Implementation Status 26011.3.1 North America 26011.3.2 South America 26211.3.3 Europe 26211.3.4 Asia 26311.4 Second-Generation Biofuels 26511.4.1 Cellulosic Ethanol 26511.4.2 Biobutanol 26811.5 Issues for Biofuels Commercial Success 26911.5.1 Transport by Pipeline 26911.5.2 Decentralized Production and Local Distribution 27011.5.3 Optimized Engine Performance 27111.5.4 Value of Biorefinery Co-products 27211.6 Summary 272References 27212 Biobased Chemicals and Polymers 275Randall W. Powell, Clare Elton, Ross Prestidge, and Helene Belanger12.1 Introduction 27512.2 Biobased Feedstock Components 27612.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies 27712.3.1 Technology Platforms Overview 27712.3.2 Lignocellulose Fractionation Overview 27912.4 Biobased Products 28712.4.1 Oil-Based Products 28712.4.2 Sugar/Starch-Based Products 28912.4.3 Polymer Products 29312.4.4 Lignin Products 29912.5 Summary 303References 30413 Carbon Offset Potential of Biomass-Based Energy 311Gauri-Shankar Guha13.1 Emerging Public Interest in Carbon 31113.1.1 Overview 31113.1.2 Initiatives to Address Anthropogenic Climate Change 31113.1.3 GHG Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration Strategies 31413.2 Theory of Carbon Markets 31413.2.1 Tradable Permits and the Market for Emissions 31413.2.2 Concept of Carbon Markets 31513.2.3 Demand and Supply of Carbon Credits 31613.3 Creation of Carbon Markets 31713.3.1 Carbon Credits 31713.3.2 Global Carbon Trade 31813.3.3 Carbon Trading in the United States 31813.3.4 The CCX Offset Program 31813.4 Role of Biomass-Based Energy in Carbon Markets 31913.4.1 Economic Significance of Bioenergy 31913.4.2 Bioenergy Policies, Practices, and Trends 32113.4.3 Carbon Offset Opportunities for Biofuels 32313.5 Prognosis of Carbon Markets 324References 32514 Biofuel Economics 329Daniel Klein-Marcuschamer, Brad Holmes, Blake A. Simmons, and Harvey W. Blanch14.1 Introduction 32914.2 Production Processes 33014.3 Biomass Transportation and Handling 33114.4 Conversion of Biomass into Sugars 33214.5 Conversion of Sugars into Biofuels 33514.6 Separation and Purification 33714.7 Co-product Handling 33714.8 Major Cost Drivers 33814.8.1 Biomass-Associated Costs 33814.8.2 Capital Expenses 34014.8.3 Operating Costs 34214.9 Risks 34314.10 Policy Support 34514.11 Infrastructure and Vehicle Modifications 34614.12 Conclusions 34714.13 Acknowledgments 348References 348Index 355