Edited by Louise Mallinder, Professor of Law, School of Law, Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice, Queen’s University Belfast, UK, Rachel Killean, Senior Lecturer, University of Sydney Law School, Australia and Lauren Dempster, Senior Lecturer, School of Law, Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

‘In a time of undulating war and global hopes for peace this Encyclopedia is timely and much needed. Bringing together some of the world’s foremost scholarly and policy experts, it is accessible, comprehensive and insightful. It gives tremendous insights both

• Contents1 Accountability 1Jemima García-Godos2 African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 4Omowumi Asubiaro Dada and Kamari Maxine Clarke3 African regional economic communities 7Kathryn Nash4 African Union 10Samuel M. Makinda and Angela Leahy5 Aggression and crimes against peace 13Frédéric Mégret6 Alternative (non-Western) approaches to peacemaking and peacebuilding 16Mateja Peter7 Alternative sanctions and conditionalities 19Juana I. Acosta-López8 Amnesty 23Louise Mallinder9 Antarctica 27Shirley V. Scott and Michelle Chase10 Archives 31Ulrike Lühe and Briony Jones11 Arctic 34Gabriela Argüello12 Armed groups in peace negotiations 39Katharine Fortin13 Article 16 of the Rome Statute 42Bartłomiej Krzan14 Article 53 and the ‘interests of justice’ 46Ignacio Baeriswyl Uribe15 Association of Southeast Asian Nations 49See Seng Tan16 Ceasefire 52Marika Sosnowski17 Characteristics of Cold War peace agreements 55Alexandra Stark18 Children 58Diane Marie Amann19 Citizenship and identity 61Samer Abboud20 Civil society and peace movements 64John D. Brewer21 Climate and environmental change 67Anselm Vogler and Rachel Killean22 Collaborators 70Shane Darcy23 Collective security 73Pål Wrange24 Confidence-building measures 76Line Engbo Gissel25 Conflict resolution 79Carrie J. Menkel-Meadow26 Constitutional reform 83Ron Levy and Alice Siu27 Corruption 87Bertram I. Spector28 Counter-terrorism 91Megan L. Manion29 Courts of arbitration 95Joel Dahlquist30 Crimes against humanity 98Darryl Robinson31 Crimes by peacekeepers 102Jasmine-Kim Westendorf32 Customary law 105Norman Chivasa33 Decolonizing peacebuilding 108Michael Fusi Ligaliga34 Derogation and emergency law 112Azin Tadjdini35 Detention in non-international armed conflict and the onset of peace 115Lawrence Hill-Cawthorne36 Deterrence 118Hyeran Jo37 Development in post-conflict states 121Pádraig McAuliffe38 Diaspora 124Raam Dutia39 Digital peace and cybersecurity 127Eneken Tikk40 Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration 130Alpaslan Özerdem41 Education reforms 134Tejendra Pherali42 Environmental peacebuilding 137Erika Weinthal and Carl Bruch43 Equality and nondiscrimination 141Limor Yehuda44 European Court of Human Rights 144Antoine Buyse and Kushtrim Istrefi45 European Union 147Julian Bergmann46 Expressive function of the law 150Mark A. Drumbl47 Federalism and regional autonomy 153Bizuneh G. Yimenu48 Feminist peacebuilding 156Amy Barrow49 Foreign fighters 159Marnie Lloydd50 Gender-based violence 163Daniela Suárez Vargas51 Genocide 167Melanie O’Brien52 Guarantees of non-repetition 170Maja Davidović53 Gulf Cooperation Council 173Gertjan Hoetjes54 Human rights 176Hurst Hannum55 Human security 179Kerry F. Crawford56 Immunities of negotiators and mediators 182Regletto Aldrich Imbong57 Indigenous Peoples 185Lieselotte Viaene58 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 189Cecilia M. Bailliet59 International Court of Justice 192Eti Best Herbert60 International criminal tribunals 195Mark Kersten61 International humanitarian law 199Elizabeth Salmón62 International investigative mechanisms 202Anni Pues63 International trade law 205J. Tyson Chatagnier64 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 208Yoshifumi Tanaka65 Inter-state compensation 211Berk Demirkol66 Judicial reparations 215Carla Ferstman67 Jus post bellum 219Noël Mfuranzima68 Land governance 222Nelson Camilo Sánchez Léon69 ‘Law’ (in ‘law and peace’) 225Sarah M.H. Nouwen70 Law of occupation 228Alice M. Panepinto71 Lawfare 231Kirsten J. Fisher and Alex Camilo Duran Montano72 Lawyers 234Sara Dezalay73 Legal pluralism in peace agreements 237Philipp Kastner74 Legal security and peace agreements 241C. Sophia Müller75 Legality and legitimacy 245Tom Hadden76 Lex pacificatoria 248César Rojas-Orozco77 Liberal peacebuilding 251Dustin N. Sharp78 Magnitsky Acts 254Nikola Kurková Klímová79 Minority participation in peace processes 257Julia Palmiano Federer80 National reparations programmes 260Mariana Casij-Peña81 Natural resources and peace agreements 264Daniëlla Dam-de Jong82 Non-state armed groups’ transition to political movements 267Claudia Hofmann83 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 270Anja Mihr84 Organization of American States and security in the Americas 273Gordon Mace85 Outer space 276Alla Pozdnakova86 Peace mediation 279Mark Freeman87 Peace negotiations 282Kristine Höglund and Isak Svensson88 Peace operations and international law 285Ian Johnstone89 Peace versus justice 289Mark Kersten90 Peaceful settlement of international disputes 292Yoshifumi Tanaka91 Political economy 295Marina Veličković92 Positive peace 298Heather Devere93 Post-conflict police reform 301Kevin Hearty94 Post-World War I peace agreements 304Michel Erpelding95 Prisoners of war 307Kelisiana Thynne96 Protection and repatriation of cultural objects 310Elena Baylis97 Queer peacebuilding 314Aislinn Fanning98 Reconciliation 317Colleen Murphy99 Refugees, displaced persons and stateless persons 320Walter Kälin100 Religious mediators 324S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana101 Responsibility to protect 327Vijay Kishor Tiwari102 Restorative justice 330Patrick Lenta103 Retributive justice 333Patrick Lenta104 Right to peace 336Milton Arrieta-López105 Rule of law reform 340Teresa Almeida Cravo106 Sanctions 343Hyeran Jo107 Security sector reform 346Timothy Donais108 Socio-economic rights 349Matthew Evans109 Temporary/provisional immunities 352Jeremy Julian Sarkin110 The disappeared and the missing 355Lauren Dempster and Beatrice Canossi111 The end of (active) hostilities in non-international armed conflicts 359Julia Grignon112 The legal status of a peace agreement 362Asli Ozcelik113 The role of national dialogues in peacemaking 365Katia Papagianni114 The role of the national armed forces in peace negotiations 368Juan David Gélvez-Ferreira and Catalina Miranda Aguirre115 Third-party witnesses and guarantors in peace agreements 371Andrea Varga116 Transformative justice 374Dáire McGill117 Transitional governance 377Emmanuel De Groof118 Transitional justice 380Thomas Obel Hansen119 Truth recovery 383Adam Kochanski120 TWAIL perspectives 386Thamil Venthan Ananthavinayagan121 UN Charter 389Jennifer Trahan122 UN General Assembly 392Tuba Turan123 UN Human Rights Council 396Caroline Sweeney124 UN human rights treaty bodies 400Suzanne Egan125 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) 403Rhona K.M. Smith126 UN peacebuilding architecture 406Maria Stage127 United Nations Development Programme 410Stephen Browne128 United Nations Security Council 412Yassin M. Brunger129 Vetting judges 415Cynthia M. Horne and Lavinia Stan130 Victim participation rights in international criminal justice 418Cheryl Lawther131 Violent extremism 421Ronald C. Slye132 War crimes 424Róisín Burke133 Weapons proliferation and control 428Kathleen A. Doty134 Women (including the United Nations Security Council Women, Peace and Security Agenda) 432Catherine O’Rourke135 World Bank 435Paul Prettitore

Edited by Louise Mallinder, Professor of Law, School of Law, Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice, Queen’s University Belfast, UK, Rachel Killean, Senior Lecturer, University of Sydney Law School, Australia and Lauren Dempster, Senior Lecturer, School of Law, Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

‘In a time of undulating war and global hopes for peace this Encyclopedia is timely and much needed. Bringing together some of the world’s foremost scholarly and policy experts, it is accessible, comprehensive and insightful. It gives tremendous insights both

• Contents1 Accountability 1Jemima García-Godos2 African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 4Omowumi Asubiaro Dada and Kamari Maxine Clarke3 African regional economic communities 7Kathryn Nash4 African Union 10Samuel M. Makinda and Angela Leahy5 Aggression and crimes against peace 13Frédéric Mégret6 Alternative (non-Western) approaches to peacemaking and peacebuilding 16Mateja Peter7 Alternative sanctions and conditionalities 19Juana I. Acosta-López8 Amnesty 23Louise Mallinder9 Antarctica 27Shirley V. Scott and Michelle Chase10 Archives 31Ulrike Lühe and Briony Jones11 Arctic 34Gabriela Argüello12 Armed groups in peace negotiations 39Katharine Fortin13 Article 16 of the Rome Statute 42Bartłomiej Krzan14 Article 53 and the ‘interests of justice’ 46Ignacio Baeriswyl Uribe15 Association of Southeast Asian Nations 49See Seng Tan16 Ceasefire 52Marika Sosnowski17 Characteristics of Cold War peace agreements 55Alexandra Stark18 Children 58Diane Marie Amann19 Citizenship and identity 61Samer Abboud20 Civil society and peace movements 64John D. Brewer21 Climate and environmental change 67Anselm Vogler and Rachel Killean22 Collaborators 70Shane Darcy23 Collective security 73Pål Wrange24 Confidence-building measures 76Line Engbo Gissel25 Conflict resolution 79Carrie J. Menkel-Meadow26 Constitutional reform 83Ron Levy and Alice Siu27 Corruption 87Bertram I. Spector28 Counter-terrorism 91Megan L. Manion29 Courts of arbitration 95Joel Dahlquist30 Crimes against humanity 98Darryl Robinson31 Crimes by peacekeepers 102Jasmine-Kim Westendorf32 Customary law 105Norman Chivasa33 Decolonizing peacebuilding 108Michael Fusi Ligaliga34 Derogation and emergency law 112Azin Tadjdini35 Detention in non-international armed conflict and the onset of peace 115Lawrence Hill-Cawthorne36 Deterrence 118Hyeran Jo37 Development in post-conflict states 121Pádraig McAuliffe38 Diaspora 124Raam Dutia39 Digital peace and cybersecurity 127Eneken Tikk40 Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration 130Alpaslan Özerdem41 Education reforms 134Tejendra Pherali42 Environmental peacebuilding 137Erika Weinthal and Carl Bruch43 Equality and nondiscrimination 141Limor Yehuda44 European Court of Human Rights 144Antoine Buyse and Kushtrim Istrefi45 European Union 147Julian Bergmann46 Expressive function of the law 150Mark A. Drumbl47 Federalism and regional autonomy 153Bizuneh G. Yimenu48 Feminist peacebuilding 156Amy Barrow49 Foreign fighters 159Marnie Lloydd50 Gender-based violence 163Daniela Suárez Vargas51 Genocide 167Melanie O’Brien52 Guarantees of non-repetition 170Maja Davidović53 Gulf Cooperation Council 173Gertjan Hoetjes54 Human rights 176Hurst Hannum55 Human security 179Kerry F. Crawford56 Immunities of negotiators and mediators 182Regletto Aldrich Imbong57 Indigenous Peoples 185Lieselotte Viaene58 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 189Cecilia M. Bailliet59 International Court of Justice 192Eti Best Herbert60 International criminal tribunals 195Mark Kersten61 International humanitarian law 199Elizabeth Salmón62 International investigative mechanisms 202Anni Pues63 International trade law 205J. Tyson Chatagnier64 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 208Yoshifumi Tanaka65 Inter-state compensation 211Berk Demirkol66 Judicial reparations 215Carla Ferstman67 Jus post bellum 219Noël Mfuranzima68 Land governance 222Nelson Camilo Sánchez Léon69 ‘Law’ (in ‘law and peace’) 225Sarah M.H. Nouwen70 Law of occupation 228Alice M. Panepinto71 Lawfare 231Kirsten J. Fisher and Alex Camilo Duran Montano72 Lawyers 234Sara Dezalay73 Legal pluralism in peace agreements 237Philipp Kastner74 Legal security and peace agreements 241C. Sophia Müller75 Legality and legitimacy 245Tom Hadden76 Lex pacificatoria 248César Rojas-Orozco77 Liberal peacebuilding 251Dustin N. Sharp78 Magnitsky Acts 254Nikola Kurková Klímová79 Minority participation in peace processes 257Julia Palmiano Federer80 National reparations programmes 260Mariana Casij-Peña81 Natural resources and peace agreements 264Daniëlla Dam-de Jong82 Non-state armed groups’ transition to political movements 267Claudia Hofmann83 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 270Anja Mihr84 Organization of American States and security in the Americas 273Gordon Mace85 Outer space 276Alla Pozdnakova86 Peace mediation 279Mark Freeman87 Peace negotiations 282Kristine Höglund and Isak Svensson88 Peace operations and international law 285Ian Johnstone89 Peace versus justice 289Mark Kersten90 Peaceful settlement of international disputes 292Yoshifumi Tanaka91 Political economy 295Marina Veličković92 Positive peace 298Heather Devere93 Post-conflict police reform 301Kevin Hearty94 Post-World War I peace agreements 304Michel Erpelding95 Prisoners of war 307Kelisiana Thynne96 Protection and repatriation of cultural objects 310Elena Baylis97 Queer peacebuilding 314Aislinn Fanning98 Reconciliation 317Colleen Murphy99 Refugees, displaced persons and stateless persons 320Walter Kälin100 Religious mediators 324S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana101 Responsibility to protect 327Vijay Kishor Tiwari102 Restorative justice 330Patrick Lenta103 Retributive justice 333Patrick Lenta104 Right to peace 336Milton Arrieta-López105 Rule of law reform 340Teresa Almeida Cravo106 Sanctions 343Hyeran Jo107 Security sector reform 346Timothy Donais108 Socio-economic rights 349Matthew Evans109 Temporary/provisional immunities 352Jeremy Julian Sarkin110 The disappeared and the missing 355Lauren Dempster and Beatrice Canossi111 The end of (active) hostilities in non-international armed conflicts 359Julia Grignon112 The legal status of a peace agreement 362Asli Ozcelik113 The role of national dialogues in peacemaking 365Katia Papagianni114 The role of the national armed forces in peace negotiations 368Juan David Gélvez-Ferreira and Catalina Miranda Aguirre115 Third-party witnesses and guarantors in peace agreements 371Andrea Varga116 Transformative justice 374Dáire McGill117 Transitional governance 377Emmanuel De Groof118 Transitional justice 380Thomas Obel Hansen119 Truth recovery 383Adam Kochanski120 TWAIL perspectives 386Thamil Venthan Ananthavinayagan121 UN Charter 389Jennifer Trahan122 UN General Assembly 392Tuba Turan123 UN Human Rights Council 396Caroline Sweeney124 UN human rights treaty bodies 400Suzanne Egan125 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) 403Rhona K.M. Smith126 UN peacebuilding architecture 406Maria Stage127 United Nations Development Programme 410Stephen Browne128 United Nations Security Council 412Yassin M. Brunger129 Vetting judges 415Cynthia M. Horne and Lavinia Stan130 Victim participation rights in international criminal justice 418Cheryl Lawther131 Violent extremism 421Ronald C. Slye132 War crimes 424Róisín Burke133 Weapons proliferation and control 428Kathleen A. Doty134 Women (including the United Nations Security Council Women, Peace and Security Agenda) 432Catherine O’Rourke135 World Bank 435Paul Prettitore

Edited by Louise Mallinder, Professor of Law, School of Law, Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice, Queen’s University Belfast, UK, Rachel Killean, Senior Lecturer, University of Sydney Law School, Australia and Lauren Dempster, Senior Lecturer, School of Law, Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

‘In a time of undulating war and global hopes for peace this Encyclopedia is timely and much needed. Bringing together some of the world’s foremost scholarly and policy experts, it is accessible, comprehensive and insightful. It gives tremendous insights both

• Contents1 Accountability 1Jemima García-Godos2 African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 4Omowumi Asubiaro Dada and Kamari Maxine Clarke3 African regional economic communities 7Kathryn Nash4 African Union 10Samuel M. Makinda and Angela Leahy5 Aggression and crimes against peace 13Frédéric Mégret6 Alternative (non-Western) approaches to peacemaking and peacebuilding 16Mateja Peter7 Alternative sanctions and conditionalities 19Juana I. Acosta-López8 Amnesty 23Louise Mallinder9 Antarctica 27Shirley V. Scott and Michelle Chase10 Archives 31Ulrike Lühe and Briony Jones11 Arctic 34Gabriela Argüello12 Armed groups in peace negotiations 39Katharine Fortin13 Article 16 of the Rome Statute 42Bartłomiej Krzan14 Article 53 and the ‘interests of justice’ 46Ignacio Baeriswyl Uribe15 Association of Southeast Asian Nations 49See Seng Tan16 Ceasefire 52Marika Sosnowski17 Characteristics of Cold War peace agreements 55Alexandra Stark18 Children 58Diane Marie Amann19 Citizenship and identity 61Samer Abboud20 Civil society and peace movements 64John D. Brewer21 Climate and environmental change 67Anselm Vogler and Rachel Killean22 Collaborators 70Shane Darcy23 Collective security 73Pål Wrange24 Confidence-building measures 76Line Engbo Gissel25 Conflict resolution 79Carrie J. Menkel-Meadow26 Constitutional reform 83Ron Levy and Alice Siu27 Corruption 87Bertram I. Spector28 Counter-terrorism 91Megan L. Manion29 Courts of arbitration 95Joel Dahlquist30 Crimes against humanity 98Darryl Robinson31 Crimes by peacekeepers 102Jasmine-Kim Westendorf32 Customary law 105Norman Chivasa33 Decolonizing peacebuilding 108Michael Fusi Ligaliga34 Derogation and emergency law 112Azin Tadjdini35 Detention in non-international armed conflict and the onset of peace 115Lawrence Hill-Cawthorne36 Deterrence 118Hyeran Jo37 Development in post-conflict states 121Pádraig McAuliffe38 Diaspora 124Raam Dutia39 Digital peace and cybersecurity 127Eneken Tikk40 Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration 130Alpaslan Özerdem41 Education reforms 134Tejendra Pherali42 Environmental peacebuilding 137Erika Weinthal and Carl Bruch43 Equality and nondiscrimination 141Limor Yehuda44 European Court of Human Rights 144Antoine Buyse and Kushtrim Istrefi45 European Union 147Julian Bergmann46 Expressive function of the law 150Mark A. Drumbl47 Federalism and regional autonomy 153Bizuneh G. Yimenu48 Feminist peacebuilding 156Amy Barrow49 Foreign fighters 159Marnie Lloydd50 Gender-based violence 163Daniela Suárez Vargas51 Genocide 167Melanie O’Brien52 Guarantees of non-repetition 170Maja Davidović53 Gulf Cooperation Council 173Gertjan Hoetjes54 Human rights 176Hurst Hannum55 Human security 179Kerry F. Crawford56 Immunities of negotiators and mediators 182Regletto Aldrich Imbong57 Indigenous Peoples 185Lieselotte Viaene58 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 189Cecilia M. Bailliet59 International Court of Justice 192Eti Best Herbert60 International criminal tribunals 195Mark Kersten61 International humanitarian law 199Elizabeth Salmón62 International investigative mechanisms 202Anni Pues63 International trade law 205J. Tyson Chatagnier64 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 208Yoshifumi Tanaka65 Inter-state compensation 211Berk Demirkol66 Judicial reparations 215Carla Ferstman67 Jus post bellum 219Noël Mfuranzima68 Land governance 222Nelson Camilo Sánchez Léon69 ‘Law’ (in ‘law and peace’) 225Sarah M.H. Nouwen70 Law of occupation 228Alice M. Panepinto71 Lawfare 231Kirsten J. Fisher and Alex Camilo Duran Montano72 Lawyers 234Sara Dezalay73 Legal pluralism in peace agreements 237Philipp Kastner74 Legal security and peace agreements 241C. Sophia Müller75 Legality and legitimacy 245Tom Hadden76 Lex pacificatoria 248César Rojas-Orozco77 Liberal peacebuilding 251Dustin N. Sharp78 Magnitsky Acts 254Nikola Kurková Klímová79 Minority participation in peace processes 257Julia Palmiano Federer80 National reparations programmes 260Mariana Casij-Peña81 Natural resources and peace agreements 264Daniëlla Dam-de Jong82 Non-state armed groups’ transition to political movements 267Claudia Hofmann83 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 270Anja Mihr84 Organization of American States and security in the Americas 273Gordon Mace85 Outer space 276Alla Pozdnakova86 Peace mediation 279Mark Freeman87 Peace negotiations 282Kristine Höglund and Isak Svensson88 Peace operations and international law 285Ian Johnstone89 Peace versus justice 289Mark Kersten90 Peaceful settlement of international disputes 292Yoshifumi Tanaka91 Political economy 295Marina Veličković92 Positive peace 298Heather Devere93 Post-conflict police reform 301Kevin Hearty94 Post-World War I peace agreements 304Michel Erpelding95 Prisoners of war 307Kelisiana Thynne96 Protection and repatriation of cultural objects 310Elena Baylis97 Queer peacebuilding 314Aislinn Fanning98 Reconciliation 317Colleen Murphy99 Refugees, displaced persons and stateless persons 320Walter Kälin100 Religious mediators 324S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana101 Responsibility to protect 327Vijay Kishor Tiwari102 Restorative justice 330Patrick Lenta103 Retributive justice 333Patrick Lenta104 Right to peace 336Milton Arrieta-López105 Rule of law reform 340Teresa Almeida Cravo106 Sanctions 343Hyeran Jo107 Security sector reform 346Timothy Donais108 Socio-economic rights 349Matthew Evans109 Temporary/provisional immunities 352Jeremy Julian Sarkin110 The disappeared and the missing 355Lauren Dempster and Beatrice Canossi111 The end of (active) hostilities in non-international armed conflicts 359Julia Grignon112 The legal status of a peace agreement 362Asli Ozcelik113 The role of national dialogues in peacemaking 365Katia Papagianni114 The role of the national armed forces in peace negotiations 368Juan David Gélvez-Ferreira and Catalina Miranda Aguirre115 Third-party witnesses and guarantors in peace agreements 371Andrea Varga116 Transformative justice 374Dáire McGill117 Transitional governance 377Emmanuel De Groof118 Transitional justice 380Thomas Obel Hansen119 Truth recovery 383Adam Kochanski120 TWAIL perspectives 386Thamil Venthan Ananthavinayagan121 UN Charter 389Jennifer Trahan122 UN General Assembly 392Tuba Turan123 UN Human Rights Council 396Caroline Sweeney124 UN human rights treaty bodies 400Suzanne Egan125 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) 403Rhona K.M. Smith126 UN peacebuilding architecture 406Maria Stage127 United Nations Development Programme 410Stephen Browne128 United Nations Security Council 412Yassin M. Brunger129 Vetting judges 415Cynthia M. Horne and Lavinia Stan130 Victim participation rights in international criminal justice 418Cheryl Lawther131 Violent extremism 421Ronald C. Slye132 War crimes 424Róisín Burke133 Weapons proliferation and control 428Kathleen A. Doty134 Women (including the United Nations Security Council Women, Peace and Security Agenda) 432Catherine O’Rourke135 World Bank 435Paul Prettitore