Polymer Blends and Composites

Muralisrinivasan Natamai Subramanian is a plastics technology consultant specializing in materials, additives, and processing equipment, including troubleshooting. The author obtained his BSc in Chemistry from the Madurai Kamaraj University and his MSc (1988) in Polymer Technology from Bharathiar University. He received his Post Graduate Diploma in Plastics Processing Technology from CIPET, Chennai. He has also completed his PhD in Polymer Science from Madurai Kamaraj University. He has worked in the plastic process industry, mainly in R & D, for 13 years before turning to consultancy and building up an international client base. Muralisrinivasan teaches plastics processing seminars as well as being a Board of Studies Expert Member of Colleges in India dealing with curriculum of technology subjects. He is also the author of two other Wiley-Scrivener books: The Basics of Troubleshooting in Plastics Processing (2011); and Plastic Additives and Testing (2013).

• Preface xv1 Introduction 11.1 Polymer Blends 21.2 Polymer Composites 21.3 Blends and Composites – Advantages 31.4 Summary 4References 42 Polymers 72.1 Macromolecules 72.2 Types of Polymers 82.2.1 Thermoplastic Polymers 92.2.2 Thermoset Polymers 102.3 Polymerization 102.4 Polymerization Techniques 102.5 Synthetic Polymers 142.5.1 Thermoplastics 152.5.2 Polyolefins 162.5.3 Polyethylene (PE) 162.5.3.1 Physical Properties 172.5.3.2 Chemical Properties 182.5.3.3 Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) 192.5.3.4 Linear Low-DensityPolyethylene (LLDPE) 202.5.3.5 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 212.5.3.6 Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) 222.5.4 Polypropylene (PP) 222.5.5 Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 232.5.5.1 Rigid PVC 242.5.6 Polystyrene (PS) 242.5.7 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 252.6 Engineering Polymers 262.6.1 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) 272.6.2 Polyamide (PA) 282.6.3 Polycarbonate (PC) 292.6.4 Poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) 302.6.5 Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) 322.6.6 Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) 332.7 Natural Polymers 332.7.1 Cellulose 342.7.2 Wood 342.7.3 Starch 352.7.4 Lignin 352.7.5 Chitosan 362.7.6 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 362.7.7 Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) 372.8 Biodegradable Polymers 372.8.1 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 382.8.2 Polycaprolactone (PCL) 392.8.3 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) 392.8.4 Thermosets 392.8.5 Phenolic Resins 402.8.6 Epoxy Resins 412.8.7 Polyurethanes 422.8.8 Silicone Resins 432.8.9 Amino Resins 432.8.10 Melamine Resins 432.8.11 Unsaturated Polyester Resins 432.8.12 Bismaleimide (BMI) 442.9 Trends 442.10 Summary 45References 453 Polymer Properties 573.1 Chemistry 583.2 Polymer Properties 583.2.1 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) 603.2.2 Crystallinity 613.2.3 Tacticity 633.2.4 Intermolecular Forces 633.2.4.1 Dipole Moment 643.2.4.2 Phase Behavior 643.3 Surface Properties 653.3.1 Viscoelastic Properties 653.3.2 Mechanical Properties 673.3.3 Tensile Properties 673.3.4 Electrical Properties 683.3.5 Thermal Properties 683.3.6 Magnetic Properties 683.3.7 Barrier Properties 693.3.8 Rheological Properties 693.3.9 Elastic Properties 693.3.10 Thermodynamic Properties 703.4 Catalysis 703.5 Factors Affecting Polymer Properties 713.6 Summary 72References 724 Additives 774.1 Polymer Additives 774.2 Additives Influencing Blends and Composites 784.2.1 Antioxidants 784.2.2 Light Stabilizers 804.2.3 Heat Stabilizers 804.2.4 Plasticizers 814.2.5 Lubricants 834.2.6 Silp Additives 844.2.7 Antiblocking Additives 854.3 Processing Aids 854.3.1 Viscosity Modifiers 864.3.2 Accelerators 864.3.3 Mold Release Agents 874.3.4 Coupling Agents 874.3.5 Fillers 884.3.6 Flame Retardants 904.3.7 Antistatic Agents 914.3.8 Colorants 924.3.9 Antimicrobial Agents (Biocides) 924.3.10 Crosslinking Agents 934.3.11 Peroxides 944.3.12 Foaming Agents 954.3.13 Coupling/Dispersing Agents 964.3.14 Comonomers 974.3.15 Impact Modifiers 974.3.16 Natural Fibers 984.3.17 Copolymers as Additives 994.3.17.1 Compatibilizers 994.3.18 Interfacial Agents 1004.3.18.1 Block Copolymers 1014.3.18.2 Random Copolymer 1034.3.18.3 Graft Polymers 1034.4 Summary 104References 1045 Polymer Blends and Composites 1135.1 Properties of Polymer Blends 1145.1.1 Physicochemical Properties 1155.1.2 Morphological Properties 1165.1.2.1 Blend Structure 1165.1.2.2 Phase Morphology 1175.1.2.3 Crystallization and Morphology 1195.1.2.4 Molecular Weight 1205.1.2.5 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution 1215.1.3 Surface Properties 1215.1.3.1 Surface Tension 1215.1.3.2 Interfacial Modification 1225.1.4 Rheological Properties 1245.1.4.1 Copolymerization and Blending 1255.1.5 Polymer Composite Properties 1315.1.5.1 Structure 1315.1.5.2 Crosslinking 1335.1.5.3 Reinforcement 1335.1.5.4 Crystalline Behavior 1335.1.5.5 Mechanical Properties 1345.1.5.6 Tribological Properties 1345.1.5.7 Conductive Properties 1355.2 Summary 135References 1366 Properties of Polymer Blends and Composites 1456.1 Properties of Blends and Composites 1466.1.1 Mechanical Properties 1466.1.1.1 Tacticity 1466.1.1.2 Interfacial Adhesion 1476.1.1.3 Surface Composition and Concentration 1476.1.2 Tensile Properties 1496.1.3 Electrical Properties 1496.1.4 Thermal Properties 1496.1.5 Magnetic Properties 1506.1.6 Viscoelastic Properties 1506.1.7 Thermodynamic Properties 1516.1.8 Barrier Properties 1516.2 Summary 152References 1527 Polymer Blends 1557.2.1 Interaction Parameters 1577.2.2 Colloidal Properties 1587.2.3 Morphology 1587.2.4 Phase Separation 1597.2.5 Crystallinity 1597.2.6 Dispersion 1607.2.7 Physicochemical Properties 1607.3 Compatibilization 1617.3.1 Reactive Compatibilizers 1617.4 Classification 1617.4.1 Miscible Blends 1617.4.2 Immiscible Blends 1627.4.3 Immiscible and Miscible Blends 1637.4.4 Binary Blends 1637.4.5 Ternary Blends 1647.4.6 Homopolymer and Copolymer Blends 1667.4.7 Thermoset-Thermoplastic Blends 1667.4.8 Reactive Copolymer Blends 1667.4.9 Commercial Blends 1677.4.9.1 Polyolefin Blends 1677.4.9.2 Polyethylene Blends 1697.4.9.3 Polypropylene Blends 1717.4.9.4 Poly(ethylene oxide) Blends 1727.4.9.5 Polystyrene Blends 1727.4.9.6 Polyvinylchloride Blends 1737.4.9.7 Polyesters 1757.4.9.8 Polyamide Blends 1767.4.9.9 Acrylics Blends 1787.4.10 Acrolonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Blends 1807.4.11 Polycarbonate Blends 1817.4.12 Chlorinated Polyethylene Blends 1827.4.13 Biopolymer Blends 1837.4.13.1 Poly(lactic acid) Blends 1837.4.14 Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blends 1847.4.15 Cyclic Polymer Blends 1847.4.16 Polyethylene Oxide Blends 1847.4.17 Other Polymer Blends 1857.5 Advantage of Polymer Blends 1867.6 Summary 186References 1878 Polymer Composites 1998.1 Polymeric Phase 2008.2 Reinforcing Phase 2008.3 Classification 2008.4 Characteristics 2018.4.1 Physical Properties 2028.5 Reinforcing Agents 2038.5.1 Advantages 2038.5.2 Shortcomings 2038.6 Fillers 2038.6.1 Surface Modification 2058.6.2 Boron Trinitride 2058.6.3 Carbon Black 2058.6.4 Mineral Fillers 2068.6.4.1 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) 2068.6.4.2 Mica 2078.7 Fibers 2078.7.1 Fiber Length 2088.7.2 Synthetic Fibers 2088.7.2.1 Carbon Fiber 2088.7.2.2 Fiberglass 2098.7.2.3 Aromatic Polyamide Fibers 2108.8 Composites Classification 2108.8.1 Mechanical Properties 2118.8.2 Thermoplastic Composites 2128.8.3 Filler Reinforced Polymeric Composites 2128.8.4 Conducting Polymer Composites 2128.8.5 Fiber Reinforced Composites 2138.8.6 Continuous Fiber Composites 2138.8.7 Discontinuous Fiber Reinforced Polymers 2148.8.8 Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites 2148.9 Thermoset Composites 2158.9.1 Advantages 2168.10 Thermoplastic vs Thermoset Composites 2168.11 Summary 217References 2189 Biocomposites 2239.1 Natural Fillers 2239.1.1 Wood Flour 2249.2 Natural Fibers 2249.2.1 Treatments of Natural Fibers 2259.2.1.1 Silanes 2259.2.1.2 Benzoylation and Acrylation 2269.2.1.3 Coupling Agents 2269.2.1.4 Dispersing Agents 2269.2.2 Wood Fibers 2269.2.3 Cellulosic Fibers 2279.2.4 Other Natural Fibers 2289.2.5 Shortcomings 2289.3 Thermoplastic Materials 2289.4 Natural Polymer Composites 2289.5 Wood-Polymer Composites 2299.5.1 Properties 2309.5.2 Advantages 2309.5.3 Disadvantages 2319.5.4 Applications 2319.6 Biocomposites 2319.6.1 Glucose-Based Biocomposites 2319.6.2 Polylactide Composites 2329.7 Future Trends 2329.8 Summary 233References 23310 Processing Technology 23710.1 Processing Technology 23710.2 Processing Requirements 23810.3 Processing Polymer Blends 23910.3.1 Devolatilization 23910.3.2 Mixing 23910.4 Selection of Polymers 24010.4.1 Immiscible Polymer Blends 24110.5 Machine Selection 24110.6 Processing Polymer Composites 24210.6.1 Melt Mixing 24210.7 Thermoset Polymers 24310.8 Processing Technology for Polymer Blends and Composites 24310.8.1 Injection Molding 24310.8.2 Extrusion Technology 24610.8.2.1 Single Screw Extrusion 24610.8.2.2 Twin Screw Extrusion 24810.8.3 Thermoforming 25010.8.4 Reactive Blending 25210.8.4.1 Reaction Extrusion 25310.8.4.1 Prepolymer 25410.8.5 Curing 25410.8.5.1 Autoclave Curing 25410.8.6 Lay-Up and Spray-Up Techniques 25510.8.7 Pultrusion 25510.8.8 Sheet Molding Compound 25610.8.9 Compression Molding 25810.8.9.1 Shortcomings 26010.8.10 Resin Transfer Molding 26010.9 Wood-Polymer Composites 26110.9.1 Injection Molding 26210.9.2 Extrusion 26210.9.3 Microcellular Foam Process 26410.10 Recycling 26610.11 Summary 267References 26811 Blends, Composites and the Environment 27511.1 Recycling of Polymer Wastes 27611.2 Polymer Blends and Composites Recycling 27711.2.1 Pyrolysis 27711.2.2 Energy Conversion 27811.2.3 Recycling of Polymer Composites 27811.2.4 Grinding 27811.2.5 Reinforcing Agent Separation 28011.3 Shortcomings 28011.4 Present Needs 28111.5 Future Commitment 282References 28212 Future Trends 28512.1 Blends and Composites 28612.2 Blend and Composite Requirements 28612.3 Future Benefits 28712.3.1 Automobile Applications 28712.3.2 Aerospace Applications 28712.3.3 High Strength Particle 28712.3.4 Tribological Performance 28712.4 Greener Processing 28812.4.1 Use of Recycled Polymer 28812.4.2 Present Trends 28912.5 Future Trends 29012.6 Summary 290References 291