Performance of the Jet Transport Airplane

Trevor M. Young, University of Limerick, Ireland.

• Foreword xiSeries Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xv1 Introduction 11.1 Definitions of Performance 11.2 Commercial Air Transportation 31.3 Jet Transport Airplanes: A Short History 41.4 Regulatory Framework 81.5 Performance-Related Activities 91.6 Analysis Techniques and Idealizations 12References 142 Engineering Fundamentals 172.1 Introduction 172.2 Notation, Units, and Conversion Factors 182.3 Mass, Momentum, Weight, and Gravity 212.4 Basics of Rigid Body Dynamics 262.5 Basics of Fluid Dynamics 332.6 Further Reading 43References 433 Aerodynamic Fundamentals 453.1 Introduction 453.2 Standard Definitions and Notation 453.3 Coordinate Systems and Conventions 533.4 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 553.5 Compressibility 633.6 Boundary Layers 653.7 High Lift Devices 673.8 Controls for Pitch, Roll, and Yaw 713.9 Further Reading 75References 754 Atmosphere and Weather 774.1 Introduction 774.2 International Standard Atmosphere 774.3 Non-Standard and Off-Standard Atmospheres 854.4 The Real Atmosphere 894.5 Weather 914.6 Stability of the Atmosphere 96References 985 Height Scales and Altimetry 1015.1 Introduction 1015.2 Height Scales 1015.3 Altimetry 1045.4 Flight Levels, Tracks, and Airspace 111References 1146 Distance and Speed 1156.1 Introduction 1156.2 Distance 1156.3 True Airspeed, Ground Speed, and Navigation 1186.4 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 1206.5 Dynamic Pressure and Equivalent Airspeed 1216.6 Calibrated Airspeed 1226.7 Indicated Airspeed 1276.8 Relationship Between Airplane Speeds 128References 1307 Lift and Drag 1317.1 Introduction 1317.2 Airplane Lift 1327.3 Airplane Drag 1377.4 Drag Polar 1437.5 Drag Polar Corrections 1507.6 Lift-to-Drag Ratio 1587.7 Minimum Drag Condition 1627.8 Minimum Drag Power (Required Power) Condition 1647.9 Minimum Drag-to-Speed Ratio Condition 1667.10 Summary of Expressions Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar 169References 1718 Propulsion 1758.1 Introduction 1758.2 Basic Description of the Turbofan Engine 1768.3 Engine Thrust 1848.4 Fuel Flow and Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption 1908.5 Thrust Control, Engine Design Limits, and Ratings 1948.6 Thrust Variation 2028.7 Fuel Flow and TSFC Variation 2098.8 Installation Losses and Engine Deterioration 2128.9 Further Reading 217References 2189 Takeoff Performance 2219.1 Introduction 2219.2 Takeoff Distances 2229.3 Forces Acting on the Airplane During the Ground Run 2279.4 Evaluation of the Takeoff Distance from Brake Release to Rotation 2329.5 Rotation and Climb-Out to Clear the Screen Height 2389.6 Empirical Estimation of Takeoff Distances 2419.7 Evaluation of Rejected Takeoff Runway Distances 2449.8 Wheel Braking 2479.9 Takeoff on Contaminated Runways 252References 25510 Takeoff Field Length and Takeoff Climb Considerations 25710.1 Introduction 25710.2 Takeoff Reference Speeds 25810.3 Takeoff Weight Limitations 26110.4 Runway Limitations and Data 26510.5 Operational Field Length and Runway-Limited Takeoff Weight 26810.6 Takeoff Climb Gradient Requirements 27210.7 Takeoff Climb Obstacle Clearance 27410.8 Derated Thrust and Reduced Thrust Takeoff 277References 28011 Approach and Landing 28311.1 Introduction 28311.2 Procedure for Approach and Landing 28411.3 Forces Acting on the Airplane During the Ground Run 28711.4 Landing Distance Estimation 29111.5 Empirical Estimation of the Landing Distance 29711.6 Landing on Contaminated Runways 29811.7 Flight Operations 30011.8 Rejected Landing 307References 30812 Mechanics of Level, Climbing, and Descending Flight 31112.1 Introduction 31112.2 Basic Equations of Motion 31212.3 Performance in Level Flight 31512.4 Performance in Climbing Flight 31912.5 Performance in Descending Flight 33412.6 Further Reading 337References 33813 Cruising Flight and Range Performance 33913.1 Introduction 33913.2 Specific Air Range and Still Air Range Determination 34013.3 Analytical Integration 34513.4 Numerical Integration 35113.5 Cruise Optimization Based on Aerodynamic Parameters 35413.6 Best Cruise Speeds and Cruise Altitudes 36013.7 Further Details on the Use of the Bréguet Range Equation 36313.8 Influence of Wind on Cruise Performance 366References 37014 Holding Flight and Endurance Performance 37314.1 Introduction 37314.2 Basic Equation for Holding/Endurance 37414.3 Analytical Integration 37514.4 Numerical Integration 37814.5 Flight Conditions for Maximum Endurance 37914.6 Holding Operations 382References 38415 Mechanics of Maneuvering Flight 38515.1 Introduction 38515.2 Turning Maneuvers 38615.3 Level Coordinated Turns 38915.4 Climbing or Descending Turns 39615.5 Level Uncoordinated Turns 39815.6 Limits and Constraints in Turning Maneuvers 40015.7 Pitching Maneuvers 40315.8 Total Energy 404References 40916 Trip Fuel Requirements and Estimation 41116.1 Introduction 41116.2 ICAO Requirements 41216.3 FAA Requirements 41216.4 EASA Requirements 41416.5 Trip Fuel Computational Procedure 41616.6 Payload–Range Performance 41816.7 Trip Fuel Breakdown and Fuel Fractions 42216.8 Trip Fuel Estimation 42416.9 Estimating Trip Distances (To Be Flown) 42816.10 Transporting (Tankering) Fuel 42916.11 Reclearance 43016.12 Factors That Can Impact Cruise Fuel 43216.13 Impact of Small Changes on Cruise Fuel 435References 43717 En Route Operations and Limitations 43917.1 Introduction 43917.2 Climb to Initial Cruise Altitude (En Route Climb) 44017.3 Cruise Altitude Selection 44317.4 En Route Engine Failure 44617.5 En Route Cabin Pressurization Failure 45017.6 Extended Operations 45117.7 Continuous Descent Operations 454References 45518 Cost Considerations 45718.1 Introduction 45718.2 Airplane Operating Costs 45818.3 Cost Index 46118.4 Unit Energy Cost 468References 47419 Weight, Balance, and Trim 47719.1 Introduction 47719.2 Airplane Weight Definitions 47719.3 Center of Gravity 48119.4 Longitudinal Static Stability and Stabilizer Trim 48519.5 Center of Gravity Control 49019.6 Operational Weights and Dispatch Procedures 49119.7 Performance Implications 494References 49620 Limitations and Flight Envelope 49720.1 Introduction 49720.2 Stall 49720.3 High-Speed Buffet 50220.4 Altitude–Speed Limitations 50520.5 Key Regulatory Speeds 50720.6 Structural Design Loads and Limitations 51020.7 V–n Diagram (Flight Load Envelope) 512References 52021 Noise and Emissions 52321.1 Introduction 52321.2 Airplane Noise 52321.3 Noise Regulations and Restrictions 52621.4 Noise Abatement and Flight Operations 53021.5 Airplane Emissions 53221.6 Mitigating the Effects of Airplane Emissions 537References 54022 Airplane Systems and Performance 54322.1 Introduction 54322.2 Reliability Requirements for Airplane Systems 54322.3 Cabin Pressurization System 54422.4 Environmental Control System 54822.5 De-Icing and Anti-Icing Systems 54922.6 Auxiliary Power System 55022.7 Fuel and Fuel Systems 551References 55923 Authorities, Regulations, and Documentation 56323.1 Introduction 56323.2 International Civil Aviation Organization 56323.3 Aviation Authorities 56523.4 Regulations, Certification, and Operations 56723.5 Safety Investigation Authorities 57123.6 Non-Governmental Organizations 57223.7 Airplane and Flight Crew Documentation 57323.8 Airplane Performance Data 577References 578A International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Table 583B Units and Conversion Factors 591C coordinate Systems and conventions 597D Miscellaneous derivations 601E Trim and Longitudinal Static Stability 613F Regulations (Fuel Policy) 627G Abbreviations and Nomenclature 629Index 645