Alister E. McGrath is Andreas Idreos Professor of Science and Religion at Oxford University, UK. He is regarded as one of the world's leading theologians and is the author of some of the world's most widely used theological textbooks, including the bestselling Christian Theology: An Introduction (Wiley Blackwell, 2016), now in its sixth edition. He is in constant demand as a speaker at conferences throughout the world. In addition to major academic works and textbooks, he is the author of the highly acclaimed award winning biography, C. S. Lewis: A Life (2013), and The Big Question: Why Can't We Stop Talking about Science, Faith, and God (2015), nominated by Library Journal as one of the best religious books of 2015.

• Preface xvApproaching the Readings xviiTo the Student: How to Use This Book xixTo the Teacher: How to Use This Book xxiVideo Resources for This Textbook xxiiiThe Development of Christian Theology: An Historical Overview xxvAcknowledgments xxxi1 Getting Started: Preliminaries 1Introduction 21.1 Justin Martyr on Philosophy and Theology 51.2 Clement of Alexandria on Philosophy and Theology 61.3 Tertullian on the Relationship between Philosophy and Heresy 71.4 Augustine of Hippo on Philosophy and Theology 91.5 The Nicene Creed 101.6 The Apostles’ Creed 121.7 Anselm of Canterbury’s Proof for the Existence of God 131.8 Gaunilo’s Reply to Anselm’s Argument 141.9 Thomas Aquinas on Proofs for the Existence of God 161.10 Thomas Aquinas on the Principle of Analogy 191.11 William of Ockham on Proofs for the Existence of God 211.12 Martin Luther on the Theology of the Cross 231.13 John Calvin on the Nature of Faith 241.14 The Heidelberg Catechism on Images of God 261.15 John Locke on the Formation of the Concept of God 271.16 René Descartes on the Existence of God 281.17 Blaise Pascal on Proofs for the Existence of God 291.18 Blaise Pascal on the Hiddenness of God 311.19 Immanuel Kant on Anselm’s Ontological Argument 321.20 Søren Kierkegaard on the Subjectivity of Truth 331.21 The First Vatican Council on Faith and Reason 341.22 John Henry Newman on the Grounds of Faith 361.23 Adolf von Harnack on the Origins of Dogma 381.24 Karl Barth on the Nature and Task of Theology 391.25 Ludwig Wittgenstein on Analogy 411.26 Ludwig Wittgenstein on Proofs for the Existence of God 421.27 Vladimir Lossky on Apophatic Approaches to Theology 431.28 Dietrich Bonhoeffer on God in a Secular World 451.29 Paul Tillich on the Method of Correlation 471.30 Ian T. Ramsey on the Language of Christian Doctrine 491.31 Sallie McFague on Metaphor in Theology 501.32 Gustavo Gutiérrez on Theology as Critical Reflection 521.33 Brian A. Gerrish on Accommodation in Calvin’s Theology 541.34 George Lindbeck on Postliberal Approaches to Doctrine 551.35 Dumitru Stăniloae on the Nature of Dogma 581.36 Kevin Vanhoozer on the Challenge of Postmodernity for Theology 601.37 John Polkinghorne on Motivated Belief in Theology 621.38 Pope Francis on Faith and Truth in Theology and the Church 64For Further Reading 662 The Sources of Theology 67Introduction 682.1 Melito of Sardis on Typology and Old Testament Interpretation 712.2 Irenaeus of Lyons on the Role of Tradition 732.3 Hippolytus on Typological Interpretation of Scripture 742.4 Clement of Alexandria on the Fourfold Interpretation of Scripture 752.5 Tertullian on Tradition and Apostolic Succession 762.6 Origen on the Three Ways of Reading Scripture 772.7 Cyril of Jerusalem on the Role of Creeds 782.8 Augustine of Hippo on the Literal and Allegorical Senses of Scripture 792.9 Jerome on the Role of Scripture 802.10 Vincent of Lérins on the Role of Tradition 822.11 Bernard of Clairvaux on the Allegorical Sense of Scripture 832.12 Stephen Langton on the Moral Sense of Scripture 842.13 Ludolf of Saxony on Reading Scripture Imaginatively 852.14 Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples on the Senses of Scripture 862.15 Martin Luther on the Fourfold Sense of Scripture 882.16 Martin Luther on Revelation in Christ 892.17 John Calvin on the Natural Knowledge of God 912.18 John Calvin on the Relationship between the Old and New Testaments 922.19 The Council of Trent on Scripture and Tradition 932.20 The Gallic Confession on the Canon of Scripture 942.21 The Belgic Confession on the Book of Nature 962.22 Melchior Cano on the Church as an Interpreter of Scripture 972.23 The Formula of Concord on Scripture and the Theologians 982.24 Robert Bellarmine on Protestant Biblical Interpretation 992.25 The King James Translators on Biblical Translation 1002.26 Sir Thomas Browne on the Two Books of Revelation 1022.27 Francis White on Scripture and Tradition 1042.28 Jonathan Edwards on the Beauty of Creation 1052.29 William Paley on the Wisdom of the Creation 1062.30 Johann Adam Möhler on Living Tradition 1082.31 John Henry Newman on the Role of Tradition 1102.32 Charles Hodge on the Inspiration of Scripture 1132.33 Gerard Manley Hopkins on God’s Grandeur in Nature 1142.34 Charles Gore on the Relationship between Dogma and the New Testament 1152.35 James Orr on the Centrality of Revelation for Christianity 1172.36 Wilhelm Herrmann on the Nature of Revelation 1182.37 Karl Barth on Revelation as God’s Self-Disclosure 1212.38 Emil Brunner on the Personal Nature of Revelation 1232.39 Rudolf Bultmann on Demythologization and Biblical Interpretation 1242.40 Pope Pius XII on the Authority of the Vulgate Translation of the Bible 1262.41 Austin Farrer on Demythologization, History, and Biblical Interpretation 1272.42 Gerhard von Rad on Typology and Biblical Interpretation 1292.43 Karl Rahner on the Authority of Scripture 1312.44 Brevard S. Childs on the Canonical Interpretation of Scripture 1332.45 Phyllis Trible on Feminist Biblical Interpretation 1342.46 John Meyendorff on Living Tradition 1372.47 James I. Packer on the Nature of Revelation 1382.48 Thomas F. Torrance on Karl Barth’s Criticism of Natural Theology 1402.49 The Catechism of the Catholic Church on Scripture and Tradition 1432.50 N. T. Wright on the Authority of Biblical Narratives 1452.51 Alister E. McGrath on a Christian Approach to Natural≈Theology 147For Further Reading 1483 The Doctrine of God 150Introduction 1513.1 Athenagoras of Athens on the Christian God 1553.2 Irenaeus of Lyons on the Origin of Evil 1563.3 Irenaeus of Lyons on the Trinity 1573.4 Tertullian on Creation from Preexistent Matter 1583.5 Origen on Creation from Preexistent Matter 1593.6 Origen on the Relationship between God and Evil 1603.7 Gregory of Nyssa on Human Analogies of the Trinity 1613.8 Basil of Caesarea on the Work of the Holy Spirit 1633.9 Gregory of Nazianzus on the Gradual Revelation of the Trinity 1653.10 Athanasius of Alexandria on the Holy Spirit and the Trinity 1663.11 Hilary of Poitiers on the Trinity 1673.12 Augustine of Hippo on the Trinity 1683.13 Augustine of Hippo on the Relationship between God and Evil 1723.14 Epiphanius of Constantia on Sabellianism 1733.15 Cyril of Alexandria on the Role of the Holy Spirit 1743.16 John of Damascus on the Holy Spirit 1753.17 The Eleventh Council of Toledo on the Trinity 1763.18 Anselm of Canterbury on the Compassion of God 1773.19 Richard of St. Victor on Love within the Trinity 1783.20 Alexander of Hales on the Suffering of God in Christ 1803.21 Thomas Aquinas on Divine Omnipotence 1813.22 Bonaventure of Bagnoregio on the Origin of Evil 1823.23 Julian of Norwich on God as Our Mother 1833.24 William of Ockham on the Two Powers of God 1843.25 Thomas à Kempis on the Limits of Trinitarian Speculation 1853.26 John Calvin on the Providence of God 1863.27 Benedict Spinoza on the Impassibility of God 1883.28 F. D. E. Schleiermacher on the Trinity 1893.29 Karl Barth on the “Otherness” of God 1903.30 Jürgen Moltmann on the Suffering of God 1913.31 Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Glory of God 1933.32 Leonardo Boff on the Trinity as Good News for the Poor 1953.33 Robert Jenson on the Trinity 1973.34 Hans Küng on the Immutability of God 2003.35 Eberhard Jüngel on the Crucified God 2023.36 Jacques Ellul on the Theology of Icons 2033.37 Walter Kasper on the Rationality of the Trinity 2053.38 Paul Jewett on Noninclusive Language and the Trinity 2073.39 John Milbank on the Trinity in a Postmodern Age 2093.40 Elizabeth A. Johnson on Male and Female Images of God 2113.41 Anne Carr on Feminism and the Maleness of God 2133.42 Sarah Coakley on Social Models of the Trinity 2153.43 David Bentley Hart on God and Evil 217For Further Reading 2194 The Person of Christ 221Introduction 2224.1 Ignatius of Antioch on Docetism 2254.2 Irenaeus of Lyons on Gnosticism in Christology 2264.3 Tertullian on Patripassianism 2274.4 Tertullian on the Incarnation 2274.5 Novatian on the Divinity of Christ 2294.6 Origen on the Two Natures of Christ 2304.7 Arius on the Status of Christ 2314.8 Athanasius of Alexandria on the Two Natures of Christ 2324.9 Apollinarius of Laodicea on the Person of Christ 2334.10 Gregory of Nazianzus on Apollinarianism 2344.11 Theodore of Mopsuestia on the “Union of Good Pleasure” 2354.12 Nestorius on the Term Theotokos 2364.13 Cyril of Alexandria on the Incarnation 2384.14 Pope Leo the Great on the Two Natures of Christ 2394.15 The Chalcedonian Definition of the Christian Faith 2414.16 John of Damascus on the Incarnation and Icons 2434.17 Honorius of Autun on the Cause of the Incarnation 2444.18 Thomas Aquinas on the Necessity of the Incarnation 2454.19 Gregory Palamas on the Divine Condescension in the Incarnation 2464.20 Martin Luther’s Critique of Nestorianism 2474.21 François Turrettini on the Threefold Office of Christ 2494.22 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing on the Ditch of History 2504.23 F. D. E. Schleiermacher on the “Natural Heresies” of Christianity 2524.24 Martin Kähler on the Historical Jesus 2544.25 George Tyrrell on the Christ of Liberal Protestantism 2574.26 Albert Schweitzer on the Failure of the “Quest of the Historical Jesus” 2594.27 G. K. Chesterton on the Incarnation, Myth, and Reason 2604.28 P. T. Forsyth on the Person of Christ 2624.29 Dorothy L. Sayers on Christology and Dogma 2634.30 Paul Tillich on the Dispensability of the Historical Jesus 2644.31 Wolfhart Pannenberg on the Indispensability of the Historical Jesus 2664.32 Thomas F. Torrance on the Incarnation and Soteriology 2684.33 Rosemary Radford Ruether on the Maleness of Christ 2704.34 Morna D. Hooker on Chalcedon and the New Testament 2734.35 N. T. Wright on History and Christology 2754.36 Janet Martin Soskice on Christ’s Significance for Women 278For Further Reading 2805 Salvation in Christ 281Introduction 2825.1 Irenaeus of Lyons on the “Ransom” Theory of the Atonement 2855.2 Irenaeus of Lyons on “Recapitulation” in Christ 2865.3 Clement of Alexandria on Christ’s Death as an Example of Love 2875.4 Athanasius of Alexandria on the Death of Christ 2885.5 Athanasius of Alexandria on the Relationship between Christology and Soteriology 2895.6 Pseudo-Hippolytus on the Cosmic Dimensions of the Cross 2905.7 Rufinus of Aquileia on the “Fish-Hook” Theory of the Atonement 2915.8 An Ancient Liturgy on Christ’s Descent into Hell 2915.9 Theodoret of Cyrrhus on the Death of Christ 2925.10 Augustine of Hippo on Redemption in Christ 2935.11 Maximus the Confessor on the Economy of Salvation 2945.12 Simeon the New Theologian on Salvation as Deification 2965.13 Anselm of Canterbury on the Atonement 2965.14 Peter Abelard on the Love of Christ in Redemption 2995.15 Hugh of St. Victor on the Death of Christ 3005.16 Rupert of Deutz on the Incarnation as God’s Response to Sin 3015.17 Thomas Aquinas on the Satisfaction of Christ 3025.18 Nicolas Cabasilas on the Death of Christ 3035.19 John Calvin on the Grounds of Redemption 3045.20 The Socinian Critique of the Idea of Satisfaction 3055.21 John Donne on the Work of Christ 3075.22 George Herbert on the Death of Christ and Redemption 3085.23 Charles Wesley on Salvation in Christ 3085.24 F. D. E. Schleiermacher on Christ as a Charismatic Leader 3095.25 F. D. E. Schleiermacher on Christology and Soteriology 3125.26 Charles Gore on the Relationship between Christology and Soteriology 3135.27 Hastings Rashdall on Christ as a Moral Example 3145.28 Gustaf Aulén on the Classic Theory of the Atonement 3165.29 Vladimir Lossky on Redemption as Deification 3195.30 Bernard Lonergan on the Intelligibility of Redemption 3205.31 Wolfhart Pannenberg on Soteriological Approaches to Christology 3225.32 James I. Packer on Penal Substitution 3245.33 Dorothee Sölle on Suffering and Redemption 3255.34 Colin E. Gunton on the Language of Atonement 3275.35 The Catechism of the Catholic Church on the Sacrifice of Christ 3295.36 Miroslav Volf on the Cross of Christ and Human Violence 3305.37 Rosemary Radford Ruether on Suffering and Redemption 3325.38 J. Denny Weaver on Violence in Traditional Approaches to the Atonement 334For Further Reading 3366 Human Nature, Sin, and Grace 338Introduction 3396.1 Irenaeus of Lyons on Human Progress 3426.2 Tertullian on Inherited Guilt 3426.3 Origen on the Image of God 3436.4 Lactantius on Political Aspects of the Image of God 3446.5 Ambrose on the Unmerited Character of Salvation 3456.6 Ambrosiaster on Original Sin 3466.7 Gregory of Nyssa on Human Longing for God 3476.8 Augustine of Hippo on the Nature of Predestination 3486.9 Augustine of Hippo on Fallen Human Nature 3496.10 Pelagius on Human Responsibility 3506.11 Pelagius on Human Freedom 3516.12 The Council of Carthage on Grace 3526.13 The Second Council of Orange on Grace and Freedom 3536.14 Hildegard of Bingen on the Creation of Man and Woman 3556.15 Alan of Lille on Penitence as a Cause of Grace 3566.16 Francis of Assisi on the Creation 3576.17 Thomas Aquinas on the Nature of Grace 3586.18 Mechthild of Magdeburg on Humanity’s Longing for God 3606.19 Duns Scotus on the Immaculate Conception of Mary 3616.20 Gregory of Rimini on Predestination 3626.21 Gabriel Biel on Merit and Justification 3626.22 Giovanni Pico della Mirandola on Human Nature 3646.23 Martin Luther on Justifying Faith 3656.24 Martin Luther on Sin and Grace 3666.25 Philip Melanchthon on Justification by Faith 3686.26 John Calvin on Predestination 3696.27 John Calvin on the Concept of Justification 3716.28 The Council of Trent on Justification 3726.29 Theodore Beza on the Causes of Predestination 3726.30 John Donne on the Bondage of the Human Will 3746.31 The Westminster Confession of Faith on Predestination 3756.32 Jonathan Edwards on Original Sin 3756.33 John Wesley on Justification 3776.34 John Henry Newman on Original Sin 3786.35 Karl Barth on Election in Christ 3806.36 Emil Brunner on Barth’s Doctrine of Election 3826.37 Reinhold Niebuhr on Original Sin 3836.38 Valerie C. Saiving on Feminist Approaches to Sin 3856.39 The Second Vatican Council on Human Nature 3876.40 Mary Hayter on Human Sexuality and the Image of God 3896.41 Pope Benedict XVI on the Identity of Humanity 392For Further Reading 3947 The Church 395Introduction 3967.1 Irenaeus of Lyons on the Function of the Church 3997.2 Origen on the Church and Salvation 3997.3 Cyprian of Carthage on the Unity of the Church 4007.4 Cyril of Jerusalem on the Catholicity of the Church 4027.5 Petilian of Cirta on the Purity of Ministers 4037.6 Augustine of Hippo on the Mixed Nature of the Church 4047.7 Pope Leo the Great on Ministry within the Church 4057.8 Pope Innocent III on the Church and State 4067.9 Thomas Aquinas on the Catholicity of the Church 4067.10 Pope Boniface VIII on Papal Primacy 4077.11 Jan Hus on the Church 4097.12 Martin Luther on the Marks of the Church 4107.13 Martin Luther on Priests and Laity 4127.14 Philip Melanchthon on the Nature of Catholicity 4137.15 Sebastian Franck on the True Church 4147.16 The First Helvetic Confession on the Nature of the Church 4157.17 John Calvin on the Marks of the Church 4167.18 Richard Hooker on the Purity of the Church 4177.19 The Westminster Confession of Faith on the Church 4187.20 Roger Williams on the Separation of the Church from the World 4197.21 F. D. E. Schleiermacher on the Church as a Fellowship of Believers 4207.22 The First Vatican Council on Papal Primacy in the Church 4227.23 Henry Barclay Swete on the Apostolicity of the Church 4247.24 The Barmen Confession on the Identity of the Church 4277.25 Stephen Charles Neill on Holiness and the Mission of the Church 4287.26 Yves Congar on the Hierarchy of the Church 4297.27 The Second Vatican Council on the Nature of the Church 4317.28 John D. Zizioulas on Local and Universal Churches 4337.29 Avery Dulles on the Meanings of “Catholicity” 4347.30 Stanley Hauerwas on the Church and the Story of Faith 4357.31 George Dragas on the Orthodox Concept of the Church 4377.32 Pope John Paul II on the Laity and Mission 4387.33 John Webster on the Church and the Gospel 440For Further Reading 4428 The Sacraments 443Introduction 4448.1 Clement of Alexandria on Faith as Feeding on Christ 4478.2 Tertullian on the Significance of Water in Baptism 4478.3 Cyprian of Carthage on Heretical Baptism 4498.4 Cyril of Jerusalem on the Meaning of Baptism 4498.5 Cyril of Jerusalem on the Body and Blood of Christ 4518.6 Hilary of Poitiers on the Effects of Baptism 4518.7 Gregory of Nazianzus on the Symbolism of Baptism 4528.8 Augustine of Hippo on Donatist Approaches to the Sacraments 4538.9 Augustine of Hippo on the “Right to Baptize” 4548.10 John of Damascus on the Holy Spirit and the Eucharist 4558.11 Paschasius Radbertus on the Real Presence 4568.12 Ratramnus of Corbie on the Real Presence 4578.13 Candidus of Fulda on “This is My Body” 4588.14 Lanfranc of Bec on the Mystery of the Sacraments 4598.15 Hugh of St. Victor on the Definition of a Sacrament 4608.16 Peter Lombard on the Definition of a Sacrament 4618.17 The Fourth Lateran Council on Baptism and the Eucharist 4628.18 Thomas Aquinas on Transubstantiation 4648.19 Martin Luther on the Doctrine of Transubstantiation 4658.20 Martin Luther on the Bread and Wine as a Testament 4668.21 Huldrych Zwingli on “This is My Body” 4688.22 Huldrych Zwingli on the Nature of Sacraments 4708.23 John Calvin on the Nature of Sacraments 4728.24 The Council of Trent on Transubstantiation 4738.25 John Wesley on the Eucharist and Salvation 4748.26 John Henry Newman on Infant Baptism 4758.27 The Second Vatican Council on the Eucharist 4778.28 Edward Schillebeeckx on the Real Presence 4798.29 The World Council of Churches on Baptism 4818.30 Alexander Schmemann on the Eucharist 4838.31 Rowan Williams on the Nature of a Sacrament 4858.32 Pope John Paul II on the Eucharist as a Sign of Hope 487For Further Reading 4889 Christianity and Other Religions 490Introduction 4919.1 Justin Martyr on Christianity and Judaism 4939.2 Ludwig Feuerbach on the Human Origins of Religion 4949.3 Karl Marx on Feuerbach’s Views on Religion 4959.4 Karl Barth on Christianity and Religion 4969.5 C. S. Lewis on Myth in Christianity and Other Faiths 4989.6 Karl Rahner on Christianity and the Non-Christian Religions 5009.7 The Second Vatican Council on Non-Christian Religions 5039.8 Clark Pinnock on Pluralists and Christology 5069.9 John Hick on Complementary Pluralism 5099.10 John B. Cobb Jr. on Religious Pluralism 5139.11 Lesslie Newbigin on the Gospel in a Pluralist Culture 5169.12 Gavin D’Costa on the Self-Contradictions of Pluralism 5199.13 Herbert McCabe on Christianity and the Abolition of the Gods 5229.14 David Ford on Scriptural Reasoning and Interreligious Dialogue 5239.15 Pope Francis on Evangelism and Interreligious Dialogue 526For Further Reading 52810 The Last Things 529Introduction 53010.1 Irenaeus of Lyons on the Final Restoration of Creation 53210.2 Theophilus of Antioch on Conditional Immortality 53310.3 Tertullian on Hell and Heaven 53410.4 Tertullian on the Millennium 53410.5 Origen on the Resurrection Body 53510.6 Cyprian of Carthage on Paradise as the Christian Homeland 53610.7 Methodius of Olympus on the Resurrection 53710.8 Cyril of Jerusalem on Prayers for the Dead 53810.9 Gregory of Nyssa on the Resurrection Body 53910.10 John Chrysostom on Prayers for the Dead 54010.11 Augustine of Hippo on the Christian Hope 54010.12 Gregory the Great on Purgatory 54110.13 Peter Lombard on the Appearance of Humanity in Heaven 54210.14 Pope Benedict XII on Seeing God in Heaven 54310.15 Catherine of Genoa on Purgatory 54410.16 John Donne on the Resurrection 54510.17 Jeremy Taylor on Death and Heaven 54610.18 Jonathan Edwards on the Reality of Hell 54710.19 John Wesley on Universal Restoration 54910.20 C. S. Lewis on the Hope of Heaven 55010.21 Rudolf Bultmann on the Existential Interpretation of Eschatology 55210.22 Helmut Thielicke on Ethics and Eschatology 55410.23 Richard Bauckham on Jürgen Moltmann’s Eschatology 55610.24 Hans Urs von Balthasar on Hell 55810.25 The Catechism of the Catholic Church on Heaven 55910.26 Kathryn Tanner on Eternal Life 561For Further Reading 563A Glossary of Theological Terms 565Sources of Readings 572For Further Study: Additional Collections of Readings 583Index 585